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UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

FORM 10-K

(Mark One)

For the fiscal year ended December 31, 2021

OR

Commission File Number 001-36687

XENON PHARMACEUTICALS INC.

(Exact Name of Registrant as Specified in its Charter)

Registrant’s telephone number, including area code: (604) 484-3300

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(g) of the Act: None

Indicate by check mark if the Registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act. Yes ☒ No ☐

Indicate by check mark if the Registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Act. Yes ☐ No ☒

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant: (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the Registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days. Yes ☒ No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the Registrant was required to submit such files). Yes ☒ No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, a smaller reporting company, or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act.  ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has filed a report on and attestation to its management’s assessment of the effectiveness of its internal control over financial reporting under Section 404(b) of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (15 U.S.C. 7262(b)) by the registered public accounting firm that prepared or issued its audit report.  ☒

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act). Yes ☐ No ☒

The aggregate market value of the voting and non-voting common equity held by non-affiliates of the Registrant, based on the closing price of the common shares on The Nasdaq Global Market on June 30, 2021, was approximately $751.1 million. Common shares held by each executive officer and director and by each other person who may be deemed to be an affiliate of the Registrant, have been excluded from this computation.  This determination of affiliate status is not necessarily a conclusive determination for other purposes.

The number of common shares of the Registrant outstanding as of February 25, 2022 was 51,921,446.

DOCUMENTS INCORPORATED BY REFERENCE

XENON PHARMACEUTICALS INC.

FORM 10-K

For the Fiscal Year Ended December 31, 2021

Table of Contents

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PART I

Forward-Looking Statements

Certain statements contained in this Annual Report on Form 10-K may constitute forward-looking statements within the meaning of Section 27A of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, and Section 21E of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended and Canadian securities laws. The words or phrases “would be,” “will allow,” “intends to,” “may,” “believe,” “plan,” “will likely result,” “are expected to,” “will continue,” “is anticipated,” “estimate,” “project,” or similar expressions, or the negative of such words or phrases, are intended to identify “forward-looking statements.” You should read these statements carefully because they discuss future expectations, contain projections of future results of operations or financial condition, or state other “forward-looking” information. These statements relate to our future plans, objectives, expectations, intentions and financial performance and the assumptions that underlie these statements. These forward-looking statements include, but are not limited to:

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These forward-looking statements are subject to certain risks and uncertainties that could cause actual results to differ materially from those anticipated in the forward-looking statements. Factors that might cause such a difference include, but are not limited to, those discussed in this report in Part I, Item 1A — “Risk Factors,” and elsewhere in this report. Forward-looking statements are based on our management’s beliefs and assumptions and on information currently available to our management. These statements, like all statements in this report, speak only as of their date, and we undertake no obligation to update or revise these statements in light of future developments. In this report, “we,” “our,” “us,” “Xenon,” and “the Company” refer to Xenon Pharmaceuticals Inc. and its subsidiary. Unless otherwise noted, all dollar amounts in this report are expressed in United States dollars.

In addition, statements that “we believe” and similar statements reflect our beliefs and opinions on the relevant subject. These statements are based upon information available to us as of the date of this Annual Report on Form 10-K, and although we believe such information forms a reasonable basis for such statements, such information may be limited or incomplete, and our statements should not be read to indicate that we have conducted a thorough inquiry into, or review of, all potentially available relevant information. These statements are inherently uncertain, and investors are cautioned not to unduly rely upon these statements.

This Annual Report on Form 10-K includes our trademarks and registered trademarks, including the Xenon logo and other trademarks or service marks of Xenon. Other trademarks, trade names, or service marks appearing in this Annual Report on Form 10-K belong to their respective holders.

Risk Factors Summary

Our business is subject to numerous risks and uncertainties, including those highlighted in the section of this report captioned “Risk Factors.” The following is a summary of the principal risks we face:

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Our Risk Factors are not guarantees that no such conditions exist as of the date of this report and should not be interpreted as an affirmative statement that such risks or conditions have not materialized, in whole or in part.

Item 1.Business

We are a clinical stage biopharmaceutical company committed to developing innovative therapeutics to improve the lives of patients with neurological disorders. We are advancing a novel product pipeline of neurology-focused therapies to address areas of high unmet medical need, with a focus on epilepsy. In addition to our proprietary product candidates, we also have partnered programs with pharmaceutical companies, including Neurocrine Biosciences, Inc., or Neurocrine Biosciences, and Pacira BioSciences, Inc., or Pacira BioSciences.

Our Strategy

Our goal is to build a fully-integrated and profitable biopharmaceutical company that discovers, develops, and commercializes innovative therapeutics to improve the health of patients with epilepsy and other neurological disorders.

Key components of our strategy include:

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Our Pipeline

*Investigator-sponsored Phase 2 proof-of-concept study

Our Product Candidates

Overview of XEN1101, A Kv7 Potassium Channel Opener

XEN1101 is a differentiated Kv7 potassium channel opener being developed for the treatment of epilepsy and potentially other neurological disorders, such as major depressive disorder, or MDD. The Kv7 potassium channel mechanism has been clinically validated with ezogabine, an earlier generation Kv7 opener that was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, or FDA, as an adjunctive treatment for adults with focal seizures with or without secondary generalization. XEN1101’s unique composition is chemically designed to improve upon potency, selectivity and pharmacokinetics, or PK, of ezogabine, and is not expected to have ezogabine’s composition-specific tissue pigmentation effects.

Phase 1 studies conducted in healthy subjects suggested that XEN1101 was generally safe and well tolerated in the doses examined, and its PK profile supported a once-per-day dosing schedule.  Additionally, data from a Phase 1b transcranial magnetic stimulation, or TMS, cross-over study – which was designed to assess XEN1101’s ability and potency to modulate cortical excitability – demonstrated activity in the target CNS tissue and helped inform dose selection for our Phase 2b clinical trial.  In October 2021, we announced positive results from our Phase 2b X-TOLE clinical trial, which evaluated the clinical efficacy, safety and tolerability of XEN1101 administered as an adjunctive treatment for adult patients with focal epilepsy. The topline data showed all primary and secondary seizure reduction endpoints were statistically significant across all dose groups, including the primary endpoint of median reduction from baseline in monthly seizure frequency and in the key secondary endpoint of patients with at least a 50% reduction in monthly focal seizure frequency from baseline, with p-values of <0.001 for both the 20 mg and 25 mg dose groups. For a more detailed description of XEN1101 clinical results, see “Summary of XEN1101 Clinical Results” below.

We anticipate participating in an “end-of-Phase 2” meeting with the FDA in the second quarter of 2022 to support the initiation of our Phase 3 XEN1101 clinical program in adult patients with focal epilepsy, estimated in the second half of 2022. The X-TOLE open-label extension, which has been extended to three years, is expected to continue to generate important long-term data for XEN1101. We are also evaluating other potential epilepsy indications for the future development of XEN1101.

In addition, we are collaborating with the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai to conduct an investigator-sponsored Phase 2 proof-of-concept, multi-site, randomized, parallel-arm, placebo-controlled clinical trial of XEN1101 for the treatment of MDD, with patient enrollment underway. Approximately 60 patients with MDD will be randomized in a 1:1 fashion to XEN1101 (n=30) or matching placebo (n=30), with subjects taking 20 mg once a day of XEN1101 or placebo for 8 weeks. The primary objective is to investigate the effect of XEN1101 on brain measures of reward using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, or fMRI. Secondary endpoints include clinical measures of depression and anhedonia. In addition, an investigational new drug, or IND application has been submitted to the FDA to support our plans for a larger company-sponsored clinical study in MDD with XEN1101, which is expected to be initiated in the first half of 2022, pending acceptance of our regulatory filings.

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We continue to execute on our comprehensive strategy to protect and expand the intellectual property portfolio that covers XEN1101. Importantly, two additional U.S. patents were granted in 2021 covering claims related to: (1) four distinct crystalline forms of XEN1101 drug substance and pharmaceutical compositions containing the same as compositions-of-matter, along with methods for their preparation and use, which cover the XEN1101 crystalline form in current and future clinical development; and (2) methods of enhancing the bioavailability of XEN1101 by administration with or close to a meal, which is consistent with the dosing of XEN1101 in our Phase 2b clinical trial. These U.S. patents are expected to expire in 2040 and 2039, respectively, absent any extensions of patent term. In addition to our four issued U.S. patents, we have four pending U.S. non-provisional patent applications related to XEN1101, along with approximately 14 foreign issued patents, three pending PCT international applications, and numerous pending applications in various foreign jurisdictions relating to XEN1101 and certain related compounds as of December 31, 2021. For a more detailed description of our intellectual property portfolio, see “—Intellectual Property” below.

Summary of XEN1101 Clinical Results

Phase 1: We completed a Phase 1 clinical trial that evaluated the safety, tolerability and PK of both single ascending doses, or SAD, and multiple ascending doses, or MAD, of XEN1101 in healthy subjects. The XEN1101 Phase 1 clinical trial also included a pharmacodynamic read-out from TMS studies that were designed to assess XEN1101’s ability and potency to modulate cortical excitability, thereby demonstrating activity in the target CNS tissue. The XEN1101 Phase 1 results include data from six SAD cohorts ranging in dose from 5 to 30 mg (n=34, placebo=8), including a crossover food effect cohort (n=10) with a single 20 mg dose. MAD results included three cohorts ranging in once daily doses from 15 to 25 mg (n=18, placebo=6) including two cohorts of 15 mg evaluated in a fasted and fed state over 7 and 10 days, respectively, and one cohort of 25 mg evaluated in a fed state over 10 days. The PK profile of XEN1101 supports a once-per-day dosing schedule without the need for titration. The majority of adverse events, or AEs, were mild or moderate, resolved spontaneously and were consistent with antiepileptic drugs of this class. There were no serious adverse events, deaths, or clinically significant delayed ventricular repolarization or laboratory findings. Phase 1 results suggest that XEN1101 is generally safe and well tolerated in the doses examined (single doses of up to 30 mg and multiple doses of up to 25 mg once daily).

Phase 1b: We also completed a Phase 1b double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized cross-over TMS study that included 20 healthy male subjects. TMS measurements were taken at 2 and 4 hours for all subjects and, due to a prolonged absorption phase displayed by XEN1101, an additional TMS assessment time-point was added at 6 hours for a subset of subjects. Subjects were randomized initially to either a 20 mg dose of XEN1101 or placebo and then, after a one-week wash-out period, crossed over to the other treatment arm. XEN1101 reduced corticospinal excitability, as demonstrated by a concentration dependent elevation in resting motor threshold, or RMT, the key TMS-EMG measure. RMT increased in proportion to XEN1101 plasma concentration showing a mean ± standard error of mean increase of 4.9 ± 0.7% (p<0.01) at 6 hours. Active motor threshold, or AMT, also increased in proportion to plasma concentration of XEN1101 with an increase of 2.0 ± 0.4% at 6 hours. In addition, XEN1101 statistically significantly modulated TMS-evoked electroencephalogram, or EEG, potentials, or TEPs, in a pattern consistent with reductions in cortical excitability. Relative to time-matched placebo, at peak plasma levels, XEN1101 decreased the amplitude of TEPs vs placebo at 25, 45 and 180 ms after the TMS pulse. Additional measures of cortical excitability including global mean field power were similarly impacted. XEN1101 also shifted the power spectra of resting state EEGs toward lower frequencies. This Phase 1b TMS study provided evidence of the CNS effects of a 20 mg dose of XEN1101 as indicated by suppression of cortical and corticospinal excitability, which helped inform dose selection for our XEN1101 Phase 2b clinical trial.

Phase 2b X-TOLE Clinical Trial: In October 2021, we announced topline results from the Phase 2b X-TOLE clinical trial, which was designed as a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter study to evaluate the clinical efficacy, safety, and tolerability of XEN1101 administered as once-daily adjunctive treatment in adult patients with focal epilepsy. The study included a total of 325 randomized and treated subjects in the safety population and 323 subjects in the modified intent to treat population for the efficacy analyses. Subjects had an average age of 40.8 ± 13.3 years, and 8.9%, 40.3%, or 50.8% of the subjects were on and continued taking one, two, or three stable background anti-seizure medications, or ASMs, throughout the study, respectively, and failed a median of 6 previous ASMs prior to study entry. The median baseline seizure frequency across the study groups was approximately 13.5 seizures per month. Of the 285 subjects who completed the double-blind period, 96.5% entered the open-label extension to evaluate the long-term safety, tolerability, and effectiveness of XEN1101.

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Summary of X-TOLE Efficacy Results: The X-TOLE trial met its primary efficacy endpoint with XEN1101 demonstrating a statistically significant and dose-dependent reduction from baseline in monthly (defined as 28 days) focal seizure frequency when compared to placebo (monotonic dose response; p<0.001). Primary and secondary measures in the topline data set included a pairwise comparison of each active dose to placebo and a responder analysis with the proportion of patients who achieved a 50% or greater reduction in monthly focal seizure frequency from baseline. XEN1101 demonstrated a statistically significant reduction from baseline in monthly focal seizure frequency in pairwise comparisons to placebo for all three XEN1101 doses. The median percent reduction in monthly focal seizure frequency was 52.8% in the XEN1101 25 mg group, 46.4% in the XEN1101 20 mg group, and 33.2% in the XEN1101 10 mg group compared to 18.2% in the placebo group. Statistical significance was achieved for all dose groups compared to placebo with 2-sided p-values of p<0.001 for 25 mg vs. placebo, p<0.001 for 20 mg vs. placebo, and p=0.035 for 10 mg vs. placebo. A prespecified secondary endpoint of the study was a responder analysis, which compared the proportion of study subjects treated with XEN1101 who achieved a ≥50% reduction in monthly focal seizures versus placebo. The percentage of subjects who achieved a ≥50% reduction in monthly focal seizures was 54.5% in the XEN1101 25 mg group, 43.1% in the XEN1101 20 mg group, and 28.3% in the XEN1101 10 mg group compared to 14.9% in the placebo group. Statistical significance was achieved for all dose groups compared to placebo with 2-sided p-values of p<0.001 for 25 mg vs. placebo, p<0.001 for 20 mg vs. placebo, and p=0.037 for 10 mg vs placebo. In addition to the topline data, further sub-analyses were presented in December 2021 at the Annual Meeting of the American Epilepsy Society, or AES 2021. These sub-analyses include the proportion of patients with at least a 75% reduction in monthly focal seizure frequency from baseline along with the proportion of patients who achieved 100% reduction in monthly seizure frequency from baseline. Efficacy results are summarized in the following table; all p-values are 2-sided comparing the active dose to placebo for the prespecified primary and secondary seizure reduction endpoints:

Additional sub-analyses were performed in patients with different baseline characteristics given that X-TOLE included a “difficult-to-treat” patient population as defined by the number of prior failed ASMs, concomitant ASMs on study, and baseline seizure burden. The table below outlines a sub-group analyses of median percent reduction in seizures within the 25 mg dose group, showing that there was a significant increase in seizure reduction in patients with less disease severity at baseline:

In addition, an analysis of seizure reduction across seizure subtypes showed a median percent reduction in monthly focal seizure frequency of 86.9% in ‘type 4’ focal seizures that lead to generalized tonic-clonic seizures in the 25 mg dose group. A time-to-event analysis analyzing the time to reach the baseline monthly focal seizure count during the double-blind period showed a marked dose-dependent decrease in the rate of seizure recurrence when comparing XEN1101 to placebo.

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These marked reductions in seizures were associated with statistically significant improvements in overall status, as assessed by physicians using the Clinical Global Impression of Change, or CGI-C, and by subject self-reporting using the Patient Global Impression of Change, or PGI-C, scales in the XEN1101 25 mg group, which are shown in the table below with 2-sided p-values:

The XEN1101 25 mg group was statistically significant in CGI-C and PGI-C, and the XEN1101 20 mg group was statistically significant in PGI-C, while the XEN1101 20 mg group in CGI-C and the XEN1101 10 mg group for both CGI-C and PGI-C showed numerical improvements over placebo but were not statistically significant.

Summary of X-TOLE Safety Results: XEN1101 was generally well-tolerated in this study with AEs consistent with other ASMs. The incidence of treatment-emergent adverse events, or TEAEs, was higher in the treatment groups as compared to the placebo group, with 62.3% of patients in the placebo group, 67.4% of patients in the XEN1101 10 mg group, 68.6% of patients in the XEN1101 20 mg group, and 85.1% of patients in the XEN1101 25 mg group experiencing at least one TEAE. The TEAEs that were greater than or equal to 5% in all treatment arms were attributed to nervous system disorders; psychiatric disorders; general disorders; gastrointestinal disorders; eye disorders; and infections – with the majority related to the central nervous system, mild or moderate in severity, and occurring early in the treatment period. Across all XEN1101 dose groups (n=211), the most common TEAEs were dizziness (n=52, 24.6%), somnolence (n=33, 15.6%), fatigue (n=23, 10.9%), and headache (n=21, 10.0%). The breakdown of subjects with dizziness across dose groups including placebo is as follows: 8 subjects (7.0%) in the placebo group, 3 subjects (6.5%) in the 10 mg group, 13 subjects (25.5%) in the 20 mg group, and 36 subjects (31.6%) in the 25 mg group. The incidence of treatment-emergent serious adverse events, or SAEs, was similar in all four arms of the study with 2.6% of patients in the placebo group, 4.3% of patients in the XEN1101 10 mg group, 3.9% of patients in the XEN1101 20 mg group, and 2.6% of patients in the XEN1101 25 mg group experiencing at least one treatment-emergent SAE. There were 3.5% of subjects in the placebo group, 2.2% of subjects in the XEN1101 10 mg group, 13.7% of subjects in the XEN1101 20 mg group, and 15.8% of subjects in the XEN1101 25 mg group that had an AE leading to treatment discontinuation. Two TEAEs of urinary retention were reported in the active treatment groups, one of which required a dose reduction, and both subjects remained on drug with no other changes or intervention. There was no evidence of urinary retention based upon mean differences across treatment groups in the total or individual items of the American Urological Associations Symptoms Index. There was no cardiovascular signal of concern based on vital signs from resting or orthostatic tests; there were no safety signals of concern from physical or neurologic exams; and there were no signals of concern from ECGs, safety labs or urinalysis. Weight changes were modest with mean changes of 0.2 kg in the placebo group, 0.6 kg in the 10 mg group, 1.6 kg in the 20 mg group and 1.9 kg in the 25 mg group. There have been no TEAEs of pigmentary abnormalities reported during the double-blind phase of the study or in preliminary analysis during the ongoing open-label extension to date with approximately 100 subjects now treated more than 12 months.

Epilepsy and Focal Onset Seizures

Epilepsy is a chronic neurologic disorder, the hallmark of which is recurrent, unprovoked and upredictable seizures. Individuals are diagnosed with epilepsy if they have two unprovoked seizures (or one unprovoked seizure with the likelihood of recurrent seizures) that were not caused by a known and reversible medical condition. Seizures are generally described in two major groups: generalized seizures and focal seizures. Focal seizures are the most common type of seizure experienced by people with epilepsy. A focal seizure is localized within the brain and can either stay localized or spread to the entire brain, which is typically categorized as a secondary generalized seizure. Focal seizures account for approximately 60% of seizures in the U.S., which results in a total focal onset seizure patient population of approximately 1.8 million patients.

Numerous ASMs are available for the treatment of focal seizures in the U.S. The treatment of an individual patient with focal seizures is currently focused on reduction of seizure frequency, with seizure freedom as the ultimate goal. Early treatment typically begins with monotherapy followed by increasing use of polypharmacy to manage patients with residual seizure burden.  Despite the availability of multiple treatment options, approximately 50% of patients are considered inadequately managed with initial lines of therapy warranting additional treatment options. For poorly managed patients, physicians increasingly turn to complementary mechanisms used as adjunctive therapy to control seizures. Based on our prior market research, we believe XEN1101 could offer a compelling value proposition for focal epilepsy patients with residual seizure burden if approved.

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Overview of XEN496, a Kv7 Potassium Channel Opener

XEN496, a Kv7 potassium channel opener, is a proprietary, pediatric formulation of the active ingredient ezogabine being developed for the treatment of KCNQ2 developmental and epileptic encephalopathy, or KCNQ2-DEE. The Kv7 potassium channel mechanism has been clinically validated with ezogabine, an earlier generation Kv7 opener that was approved by the FDA as an adjunctive treatment for adults with focal seizures with or without secondary generalization. Published case reports where physicians have used ezogabine in infants and young children with KCNQ2-DEE suggest that XEN496 may be efficacious in this often hard-to-treat pediatric patient population.

We have received Fast Track designation and orphan drug designation, or ODD, for XEN496 for the treatment of seizures associated with KCNQ2-DEE from the FDA, as well as an orphan medicinal product designation from the European Commission. The FDA previously indicated that it is acceptable to study XEN496 in infants and children up to four years old, and that a single, small pivotal trial may be considered adequate in order to demonstrate XEN496’s efficacy in KCNQ2-DEE, provided the study shows evidence of a clinically meaningful benefit in patients with the intended indication.

Ongoing Clinical Development of XEN496

We have developed XEN496 as a proprietary, pediatric-specific, immediate-release formulation of ezogabine. To support the Phase 3 clinical trial of XEN496 in patients with KCNQ2-DEE, we completed a PK study testing our pediatric formulation in 24 healthy adult volunteers. The PK profile observed for XEN496 was comparable to historical PK data for immediate-release ezogabine tablets, with XEN496 showing similar absorption and elimination curves.

We have initiated a Phase 3 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel group, multicenter clinical trial, called the EPIK study, evaluating the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of XEN496 administered as adjunctive treatment in approximately 40 pediatric patients aged one month to less than 6 years with KCNQ2-DEE. After screening, patients will enter a baseline period to assess the frequency of seizures. Eligible subjects will be randomized on a 1:1 basis to receive either XEN496 or placebo for approximately 15 weeks (titration and a 12-week maintenance period). At the end of treatment, there will be a period of tapering off of study drug, followed by a 28-day safety monitoring period. Patients may be considered for an open-label extension if they meet all requirements. The primary endpoint is the percent change from baseline in monthly countable motor seizure frequency during the blinded treatment period, as recorded by caregivers in a daily seizure diary. Key secondary endpoints include the proportion of patients experiencing greater than or equal to 50 percent reduction in monthly seizure frequency from baseline, caregiver global impression of change, or CaGI-C, scores, and caregiver global impression of severity, or CaGI-S, scores. We anticipate that the EPIK study will be completed in the first half of 2023.

About KCNQ2-DEE

KCNQ2 developmental and epileptic encephalopathy, or KCNQ2-DEE, otherwise known as EIEE7, is a rare, severe neurodevelopmental disorder with a significant seizure burden and profound developmental impairment. KCNQ2-DEE is uniquely characterized by multiple, daily, refractory seizures presenting within the first week of life with a prominent tonic component and autonomic signs. Seizures are often accompanied by clonic jerking or complex motor behavior. The EEG at onset of the disease shows a burst suppression pattern later evolving into multifocal epileptiform activity. The infants usually develop a severe to profound intellectual disability with axial hypotonia that can be accompanied by limb spasticity. The seizure activity typically decreases with age with some patients becoming seizure free or experiencing more minor seizure burden by 3 to 5 years of age; however, a survey of patient caregivers indicates that a significant proportion of patients have ongoing seizures beyond this age range. The intellectual disability and other co-morbidities are not reversed or improved with age and patients generally require life-long care. Patients are often non-verbal, and some children may also have autistic features. Seizure-related bradycardia and oxygen desaturation with cyanosis have been observed and are thought to contribute to the significant risk of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy, or SUDEP, in these children. An epidemiology study from Europe examining the incidence and phenotypes of childhood-onset genetic epilepsies reports the incidence of KCNQ2-DEE as approximately 1 per 17,000 live births.

New Pipeline Opportunities

Given our expertise in drug discovery, our efforts are concentrated on the identification of ion channel targets where we believe novel openers might represent significant therapeutic advances, with a particular focus on epilepsy and other CNS-related indications. Expansion of our pipeline may come from our internal research efforts and through the acquisition or in-licensing of other external product candidates.

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Our Partnered Programs

NBI-921352, A Clinical Stage, Selective Nav1.6 Sodium Channel Inhibitor for the Treatment of Epilepsy

In December 2019, we entered into a license and collaboration agreement with Neurocrine Biosciences to develop treatments for epilepsy. Neurocrine Biosciences has an exclusive license to XEN901, now known as NBI-921352, a clinical stage selective Nav1.6 sodium channel inhibitor, and an exclusive license to pre-clinical compounds for development, including selective Nav1.6 inhibitors and dual Nav1.2/1.6 inhibitors. The agreement also included a multi-year research collaboration to discover, identify and develop additional novel Nav1.6 and Nav1.2/1.6 inhibitors. Pursuant to the terms of the agreement, we have the potential to receive certain clinical, regulatory, and commercial milestone payments, as well as future sales royalties. For a more detailed description of the terms of this agreement with Neurocrine Biosciences, see “—Collaborations, Commercial and License Agreements” below.

NBI-921352 is a potent, highly selective Nav1.6 sodium channel inhibitor being developed to treat pediatric patients with SCN8A developmental and epileptic encephalopathy, or SCN8A-DEE, and other potential indications, including adult focal epilepsy. Neurocrine Biosciences has received orphan drug and rare pediatric disease designations from the FDA for NBI-921352 in SCN8A-DEE. Prior to our license and collaboration agreement with Neurocrine Biosciences, we completed a Phase 1 clinical trial in healthy adult subjects, and subsequently developed a pediatric-specific, granule formulation. Neurocrine Biosciences is currently conducting a Phase 2 clinical trial evaluating NBI-921352 in adult patients with focal-onset seizures, with data expected in 2023. In addition, a Phase 2 clinical trial is underway evaluating NBI-921352 in pediatric patients (aged between 2 and 21 years) with SCN8A-DEE.

PCRX301, a Nav1.7 Inhibitor for the Treatment of Post-Operative Pain

In September 2019, we entered into an agreement providing Flexion Therapeutics, Inc., or Flexion, with the global rights to develop and commercialize XEN402, a Nav1.7 sodium channel inhibitor. In November 2021, Pacira BioSciences completed its acquisition of Flexion, including Flexion’s global rights to develop and commercialize XEN402, which has been formulated for extended release from a thermosensitive hydrogel and is now known as PCRX301 (previously FX301). A Phase 1b proof-of-concept trial is underway evaluating the safety and tolerability of PCRX301 administered as a single-dose, popliteal fossa nerve block in patients undergoing bunionectomy, with topline data potentially available in the second quarter of 2022. Pursuant to the terms of the agreement, we have the potential to receive certain clinical, regulatory, and commercial milestone payments, as well as future sales royalties. For a more detailed description of the terms of this agreement with Pacira Biosciences, see “—Collaborations, Commercial and License Agreements” below.

Collaborations, Commercial and License Agreements

License and Collaboration Agreement with Neurocrine Biosciences, Inc.

On December 2, 2019, we entered into a license and collaboration agreement, or the Collaboration Agreement, with Neurocrine Biosciences to establish a collaboration under which the parties will identify, research and develop sodium channel inhibitors, including our clinical candidate XEN901, now known as NBI-921352, and preclinical candidates XEN393, XPC’535 and XPC’391, which compounds Neurocrine Biosciences will have the exclusive right to further develop and commercialize under the terms and conditions set forth in the Collaboration Agreement.

Licenses.  Under the terms of the Collaboration Agreement we granted to Neurocrine Biosciences an exclusive, royalty-bearing, sublicensable license to certain of our intellectual property rights for the research, development and commercialization of (i) NBI-921352; (ii) XEN393, XPC’535 and XPC’391, collectively referred to as the development track candidates, or the DTCs; and (iii) certain research compounds that bind to and inhibit voltage-gated sodium channels Nav1.2 and Nav1.6 as their primary mechanism of action, collectively, the Research Compounds and, together with NBI-921352 and the DTCs, the Compounds, on a worldwide basis for the treatment, cure, diagnosis, prediction or prevention of any human disease or disorder, state, condition and/or malady, subject to certain exceptions set forth in the Collaboration Agreement.  We also granted to Neurocrine Biosciences a non-exclusive, non-royalty-bearing, sublicensable license to certain of our intellectual property rights for the screening of compounds for identification as a Select Nav Inhibitor (as defined below) and for the research of certain compounds otherwise expressly excluded from the Collaboration Agreement, or the Excluded Compounds.  

Exclusivity.  During the Research Term (as defined below) and for one year thereafter, other than in accordance with the terms of the Collaboration Agreement, neither Neurocrine Biosciences nor any of its respective affiliates is permitted to directly or indirectly research, develop, manufacture or commercialize any small-molecule Select Nav Inhibitor (as defined below).  During the term of the Collaboration Agreement, other than the Excluded Compounds and otherwise in accordance with the terms of the Collaboration Agreement, neither we nor any of our respective affiliates is permitted to directly or indirectly research, develop, manufacture or commercialize a compound that, as its primary mechanism of action, binds to and inhibits voltage-gated sodium channels Nav1.2 and Nav1.6, such compound referred to as a Select Nav Inhibitor.

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Governance.  The parties have established a joint steering committee, or JSC, composed of an equal number of representatives from each entity, which will coordinate and oversee the Collaboration Programs (as defined below).  The JSC will disband upon the completion or earlier termination of both of the Collaboration Programs.  Decisions of the JSC will be made by unanimous vote, provided that in the event of a disagreement on any matter, following a specified dispute resolution procedure, Neurocrine Biosciences will have the right to decide such matter, subject to certain exceptions.

Collaboration Programs.  We are collaborating with Neurocrine Biosciences on the conduct of two collaboration programs: (i) a joint research collaboration to discover, identify and preclinically develop Research Compounds, or the Research Program, and (ii) a collaborative development program for NBI-921352 and two DTCs selected by the JSC, or the Initial Development Program and, together with the Research Program, referred to as the Collaboration Programs.  The Research Program is intended to include the preclinical development of our existing non-clinical Research Compounds and the discovery of new back-up and follow-on Research Compounds to NBI-921352 and the two DTCs selected by the JSC as clinical development candidates for subsequent development and commercialization by Neurocrine Biosciences.  During the term of the Research Program, the parties will conduct related activities in accordance with an agreed research plan and budget.  Each party will be solely responsible for all costs such party incurs to conduct its activities under the research plan, provided that Neurocrine Biosciences will reimburse us for certain full-time employees and out-of-pocket expenses incurred by us in accordance with the research budget.  The Collaboration Agreement includes a two-year Research Program which has been extended to June 2022.

The Initial Development Program will include: (i) completion of any preclinical and clinical studies that are ongoing as the date of the Collaboration Agreement of any NBI-921352 product and the two DTC products selected by the JSC; (ii) a pharmacokinetic, drug-drug interaction and food effect Phase 1 clinical trial of a NBI-921352 product to examine the adequacy of a new pediatric formulation; and (iii) all preclinical studies of two DTC products containing the two DTCs selected by the JSC.  The parties will use their commercially reasonable efforts to conduct the development activities under the Initial Development Program pursuant to specific development plans.  Each party will be solely responsible for all costs such party incurs to conduct its activities under these development plans, provided that, with respect to NBI-921352 development activities, Neurocrine Biosciences will reimburse us for certain full-time employees and out-of-pocket expenses incurred by us, and with respect to certain development activities related to the two JSC-selected DTCs, the JSC may determine that Neurocrine Biosciences shall make such reimbursements.    

Development, Regulatory and Manufacturing.  Except for the activities set forth in the plans for the Collaboration Programs, Neurocrine Biosciences will be solely responsible, at its sole cost and expense, for all development and manufacturing of the Compounds and any pharmaceutical product that contains a Compound, subject to the Co-Funding Option (as defined below).  For the first indication that meets or exceeds a specified prevalence threshold, or a Major Indication, for which Neurocrine Biosciences intends to conduct a Phase 3 clinical trial of a NBI-921352 product or the first clinical trial of a DTC product following a successful Phase 2 clinical trial for such DTC product, Neurocrine Biosciences will prepare a development plan including an estimated budget and provide such plan to us.  We will have the right to elect to co-fund the development of one product in a Major Indication under such development plan and to receive a mid-single digit percentage increase in royalties owed on the net sales as calculated pursuant to the terms of the Collaboration Agreement, or Net Sales, of such products in the United States, or the Co-Funding Option.  If we exercise the Co-Funding Option, the parties will share equally all reasonable and documented costs and expenses that Neurocrine Biosciences incurs in connection with the development of such product in the applicable indication, except costs and expenses that are solely related to the development of such product for regulatory approval outside the United States.

Neurocrine Biosciences will be the regulatory sponsor and will be solely responsible for all regulatory activities (except for those delegated to us) under the Collaboration Agreement, including submitting one or more INDs for a NBI-921352 product.  If the FDA grants a Rare Pediatric Disease Priority Review Voucher in connection with the approval of a New Drug Application for a NBI-921352 product, Neurocrine Biosciences may, at its option, (i) sell it to a third party and share a specified portion of the proceeds with us; (ii) use it for a product Neurocrine Biosciences is developing outside the Collaboration Agreement and pay us a specified portion of the voucher’s intrinsic value (as calculated pursuant to the terms of the Collaboration Agreement); or (iii) use the voucher for a pharmaceutical product that contains a Compound, in which case no payments would be due to us.  If the FDA grants Neurocrine Biosciences a voucher in connection with any other product, Neurocrine Biosciences will retain all rights to such voucher without any payment or other obligations to us.

Commercialization.  Neurocrine Biosciences will have the exclusive right to conduct, and will be solely responsible for all aspects of, the commercialization of any pharmaceutical product that contains a Compound.

Financial Terms.  Neurocrine Biosciences paid us an upfront payment of $50.0 million, which included a $30.0 million payment in cash. For the remainder of the upfront payment, concurrently with the entry into the Collaboration Agreement, the parties entered into the Share Purchase Agreement (as defined below) pursuant to which we issued and sold the Shares (as defined below) to Neurocrine Biosciences for an aggregate purchase price of $20.0 million.

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The Collaboration Agreement also provides for potential aggregate development and regulatory milestone payments from Neurocrine Biosciences to us of up to $325.0 million for a NBI-921352 product and up to $247.5 million for each other Compound up to a maximum of three other Compounds.  Sales-based milestones of up to $150.0 million for each Compound, including a NBI-921352 product, will be paid from Neurocrine Biosciences to us upon the achievement of certain Net Sales targets, up to a maximum of four Compounds.

Neurocrine Biosciences has further agreed to pay us royalties based on future Net Sales of any pharmaceutical product that contains a Compound.  Such royalty percentages, for Net Sales in and outside the United States, range from (i) for a NBI-921352 product, a low double-digit percentage to a mid-teen percentage and a high-single digit percentage to low double-digit percentage, respectively; (ii) for each DTC product, a high-single digit percentage to a low double-digit percentage and a mid-single digit percentage to a high-single digit percentage, respectively; and (iii) for each Research Compound product, a mid-single digit percentage to a high-single digit percentage and a tiered mid-single digit percentage, respectively.

Neurocrine Biosciences’ obligations to pay royalties with respect to a product and country will expire upon the latest of: (i) the expiration of the last to expire valid claim in (a) the parties’ joint patent rights filed during the Research Term or a specified period of time thereafter or (b) our patent rights as specified in the Collaboration Agreement, in each case that cover such product; (ii) ten years from the first commercial sale of the product in such country; and (iii) the expiration of regulatory exclusivity for such product in such country, or the Royalty Term.  Royalty payments are subject to reduction in specified circumstances, including expiration of patent rights or if average Net Sales decrease by a certain percentage after the introduction of a generic product.

Term and Termination.  Unless earlier terminated, the term of the Collaboration Agreement will continue on a product-by-product and country-by-country basis until the expiration of the Royalty Term for such product in such country.  Upon the expiration of the Royalty Term for a particular product and country, the exclusive license granted by us to Neurocrine Biosciences with respect to such product and country will become fully-paid, royalty free, perpetual and irrevocable.

Neurocrine Biosciences may terminate the Collaboration Agreement in its entirety or on a product-by-product or country-by-country basis, for any or no reason, by providing at least 90 days’ written notice, provided that such unilateral termination will not be effective (i) with respect to a NBI-921352 product until Neurocrine Biosciences has used its commercially reasonable efforts to complete one Phase 2 clinical trial for a NBI-921352 product; (ii) with respect to a DTC product until Neurocrine Biosciences has used its commercially reasonable efforts to complete one Phase 1 clinical trial for a DTC product; and (iii) with respect to the Collaboration Agreement in its entirety until Neurocrine Biosciences has used its commercially reasonable efforts to complete both of these clinical trials.  Either party may terminate the Collaboration Agreement in the event of a material breach in whole or in part, subject to specified conditions.  If Neurocrine Biosciences is entitled to terminate the Collaboration Agreement due to our uncured material breach, in lieu of termination, Neurocrine Biosciences may elect to reduce all subsequent payments owing from Neurocrine Biosciences to us by half.

Upon the termination of the Collaboration Agreement for any reason, all licenses and other rights granted to Neurocrine Biosciences by us shall terminate, provided that if termination is solely with respect to one or more products or countries, then such termination will apply only to the terminated products or countries.  Upon termination in certain cases, Neurocrine Biosciences has agreed to grant us licenses to certain Neurocrine Biosciences intellectual property that is reasonably necessary, and that was actually used by Neurocrine Biosciences for the development, manufacturing or commercialization of the terminated products, to research, develop and commercialize the terminated products in the terminated countries.  Such license will be royalty-free with respect to any terminated product for which a Phase 2 clinical trial was not completed prior to the effective date of termination, and otherwise will be royalty-bearing ranging from a low-single digit percentage to a high-single digit percentage depending on the stage of development of the applicable product at the effective date of termination.

The Collaboration Agreement includes certain other customary terms and conditions, including mutual representations and warranties, indemnification and confidentiality provisions.

Amendment. In January 2021, we entered into an amendment with Neurocrine Biosciences pursuant to which we revised certain IND acceptance criteria relating to NBI-921352 for the potential treatment of SCN8A-DEE. Pursuant to the terms of the Collaboration Agreement, as amended in January 2021, based on the regulatory approval of a clinical trial application in Europe for NBI-921352 for focal-onset seizures in adults, in September 2021 we received an aggregate milestone payment of $10.0 million in the form of $4.5 million in cash and a $5.5 million in equity investment. Subsequent to year-end, in January 2022, we received an aggregate milestone payment of $15.0 million in the form of a $6.75 million payment in cash and a $8.25 million equity investment, based on the FDA’s acceptance of a protocol amendment to expand the study population of a clinical trial in pediatric patients with SCN8A-DEE.   

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In February 2022, we entered into a second amendment with Neurocrine Biosciences pursuant to which the restrictions imposed on Neurocrine Biosciences prohibiting it from developing, seeking regulatory approval for, marketing or promoting certain early compounds (as the term is defined in the Collaboration Agreement) in the pain field (as the term is defined in the Collaboration Agreement) were removed.

Share Purchase Agreements

On December 2, 2019, pursuant to the Collaboration Agreement, we entered into a Share Purchase Agreement, or SPA, with Neurocrine Biosciences pursuant to which we issued and sold 1,408,847 of our common shares, or Shares, to Neurocrine Biosciences in a private placement for an aggregate purchase price of $20.0 million, or $14.196 per share. The purchase price represented a 20% premium to the closing price of our common shares on November 29, 2019.

In September 2021, pursuant to the Collaboration Agreement, as amended in January 2021, we entered into a SPA with Neurocrine Biosciences pursuant to which we issued and sold 275,337 of our Shares to Neurocrine Biosciences in a private placement for an aggregate purchase price of $5.5 million, or $19.9755 per share. The purchase price represented a 15% premium to our 30-day volume-weighted average price immediately prior to the public announcement.

Subsequent to year-end, in January 2022, pursuant to the Collaboration Agreement, as amended in January 2021, we entered into a SPA with Neurocrine Biosciences pursuant to which we issued and sold 258,986 of our Shares to Neurocrine in a private placement for an aggregate purchase price of $8.25 million, or $31.855 per share. The purchase price represents a 15% premium to our 30-day volume-weighted average price immediately prior to the public announcement.

The SPAs contain certain other customary terms and conditions, including mutual representations, warranties, and covenants.

Asset Purchase Agreement with Flexion Therapeutics, Inc., which was subsequently acquired by Pacira Biosciences, Inc.

On September 9, 2019, we entered into an asset purchase agreement with Flexion pursuant to which Flexion acquired all rights with respect to our investigational compound XEN402 and a related compound, including certain regulatory documentation, intellectual property rights, reports, data and all quantities of XEN402 owned or controlled by us. XEN402 is a Nav1.7 sodium channel inhibitor that we had previously developed with our collaborator, Teva Pharmaceuticals International GmbH and its affiliated entities, or Teva.  Pursuant to the terms of the agreement, Flexion also assumed certain liabilities relating to the purchased assets, including the obligation to pay a low single-digit percentage royalty to Teva on net sales of any approved products incorporating XEN402. Flexion paid an upfront purchase price of $3.0 million for the purchased assets and a $0.5 million milestone payment for the initiation of the first good laboratory practices, or GLP, toxicology study. In addition, in 2021, the FDA cleared the first IND application for FX301, an extended-release formulation of XEN402, and Flexion initiated a Phase 1b clinical trial, resulting in milestone payments of $1.0 million and $2.0 million, respectively, to us.

In November 2021, Pacira BioSciences completed its acquisition of Flexion, which included Flexion’s global rights and liabilities related to developing and commercializing FX301, now known as PCRX301. Pursuant to the terms of the agreement, we are eligible for a development milestone payment of $5.0 million upon initiation of a Phase 2 proof-of-concept clinical trial. Following a successful proof-of-concept clinical trial, we would be eligible to receive additional clinical development and global regulatory approval milestone payments of up to $40.75 million, commercialization milestone payments of up to $75.0 million, as well as future royalties on sales of any approved products ranging from mid-single to low-double digit percentages, depending on the level of worldwide net sales.

The agreement contains customary representations, warranties and covenants, including a covenant by us not to develop a competing product for the treatment of post-surgical pain and a covenant by Pacira BioSciences not to develop a product for the treatment of epilepsy incorporating XEN402. Each party has agreed, subject to certain conditions and limitations, to indemnify the other party for breaches of representations, warranties and covenants and for losses arising from certain assumed/excluded liabilities, as applicable.

Asset Purchase Agreement with 1st Order Pharmaceuticals, Inc.

In April 2017, we entered into an asset purchase agreement with 1st Order Pharmaceuticals, Inc., or 1st Order, pursuant to which we acquired all rights with respect to XEN1101 (previously known as 1OP2198). 1st Order previously acquired 1OP2198 from Valeant Pharmaceuticals Luxembourg S.a.r.l., an indirect subsidiary of Bausch Health Companies Inc., together with Valeant Pharmaceuticals Ireland Limited, Bausch Health, and assumed certain obligations, including potential milestone and royalty payments.

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In September 2018, we signed an agreement with Bausch Health to buy out all future milestone payments and royalties owed to Bausch Health with respect to XEN1101, including up to $39.6 million in potential clinical development, regulatory and sales-based milestones and a mid-to-high single digit percentage royalty on commercial sales in exchange for a one-time payment of $6.0 million.

In August 2020, we entered into an amendment to the asset purchase agreement to amend certain definitions in the agreement and to modify the payment schedule for certain milestones. Upon execution of the amendment, we made a payment of $0.3 million to 1^st Order. We remain responsible for future potential payments to 1st Order of up to $0.9 million in clinical development milestones, up to $6 million in regulatory milestones for multiple indications, and $0.5 million in other milestones. There are no royalty obligations to 1st Order.

Intellectual Property

As part of our business strategy, we strive to protect the proprietary technologies that we believe are important to our business, including pursuing and maintaining patent protection intended to cover our product candidates and their methods of use and processes for their manufacture, as well as other inventions that are important to our business. We plan to continue to expand our intellectual property estate by filing patent applications directed to compositions, methods of use, treatment and patient selection, formulations and manufacturing processes created or identified from our ongoing development of our product candidates. We generally file applications in the U.S., Canada, the European Union, or EU, and other commercially significant foreign jurisdictions. We also rely on trade secrets, internal know-how, technological innovations and agreements with third parties to develop, maintain and protect our competitive position. Our ability to be competitive will depend on the success of this strategy.

As of December 31, 2021, we owned, co-owned or licensed 28 issued U.S. patents and approximately 15 pending U.S. patent applications, including provisional and non-provisional filings. We also owned, co-owned or licensed approximately 242 pending and granted counterpart applications worldwide, including 11 country-specific validations of three European patents.

As of December 31, 2021, we owned four issued U.S. patents, four pending U.S. non-provisional patent applications and two U.S. provisional patent applications related to XEN1101, and methods of making and using XEN1101 and certain related compounds. The issued patents are expected to expire between 2028 and 2040 (absent any extensions of term). In addition, we have 14 foreign issued patents (exclusive of European patent national validations), three pending PCT international applications, and approximately 34 pending applications in various foreign jurisdictions relating to XEN1101 and certain related compounds.

As of December 31, 2021, we have filed one U.S. non-provisional patent application and one pending PCT international application directed to XEN496 (i.e., our pediatric formulation of ezogabine), a genus of related formulations, and methods of making and using the same.  Any patents issuing from this application are expected to expire in 2040 (absent any extensions of term).

As of December 31, 2021, we owned three issued U.S. patents and one pending U.S. non-provisional patent application directed to NBI-921352 (formerly known as XEN901) and methods of making and using this and certain related compounds. The issued patents, along with any patents issuing from these applications, are expected to expire in 2037 (absent any extensions of term).  In addition, we owned five foreign issued patents (exclusive of European patent national validations), two pending PCT international applications, and we have 22 pending corresponding applications in various foreign jurisdictions relating to NBI-921352 and certain related compounds. Pursuant to our collaboration with Neurocrine Biosciences, Neurocrine Biosciences will oversee the prosecution, maintenance and other matters relating to the patent portfolio for NBI-921352 and the other selective Nav1.6 inhibitors and dual Nav1.2/1.6 inhibitors.

As of December 31, 2021, we owned four issued U.S. patents, one U.S. non-provisional patent applications, and 120 pending corresponding applications in various foreign jurisdictions directed to certain of our selective inhibitors of Nav1.6 and/or Nav1.2 (exclusive of  NBI-921352), as well as methods of making and using the same. The issued patents, along with any patents issuing from these applications are expected to expire between 2037 and 2039 (absent any extensions of term). In addition, we owned two foreign issued patents (exclusive of European patent national validations) relating to our selective inhibitors of Nav1.6 and/or Nav1.2 (exclusive of NBI-921352), as well as methods of making and using the same.

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Competition

The biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries are highly competitive and are characterized by rapidly advancing technologies and a strong emphasis on proprietary products. While we believe that our technology, development experience, scientific knowledge and drug discovery approach provide us with certain advantages, we face potential competition in our discovery and product development efforts from many different approaches and sources, including pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, academic institutions and governmental agencies and public and private research institutions. Any product candidates or products that we or our collaborators successfully develop and commercialize will compete with existing products and new products that may become available in the future.

Many of the companies against which we are competing or against which we may compete in the future have significantly greater financial resources and expertise in research and development, manufacturing, pre-clinical testing, conducting clinical trials, obtaining regulatory approvals and marketing approved products than we, or our collaborators, do. Mergers and acquisitions in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries may result in even more resources being concentrated among a smaller number of our competitors. Smaller or early stage companies may also prove to be significant competitors, particularly through collaboration arrangements with large and established companies.

Our commercial opportunities could be reduced or eliminated if our competitors develop and commercialize products or therapies that are safer, more effective, have fewer or less severe side effects, are more convenient or are less expensive than any products that we may develop. Our competitors also may obtain FDA, European Medicines Agency, or EMA, Health Canada or other regulatory approval for their products more rapidly than we may obtain approval for ours, which could result in our competitors establishing a strong market position before we are able to enter the market. In addition, our ability to compete may be affected in many cases by insurers or other third party payers.

Aside from the product marketplace, our competitors also compete with us in recruiting and retaining qualified scientific and management personnel, establishing clinical trial sites, recruiting patients for clinical trials, and by acquiring technologies complementary to, or necessary for, our programs.

The key competitive factors affecting the success of all of our product candidates, if approved, are likely to be their efficacy, safety, convenience, price, the effectiveness of alternative products, the level of competition and the availability of coverage, and adequate reimbursement from government and other third party payers. Our product candidates that are in clinical development may compete with various therapies and drugs, both in the marketplace and currently under development.

ASMs for the Treatment of Epilepsy

If more than one of our proprietary or partnered products were approved for the treatment of epilepsy, we anticipate that they could potentially compete with one another and other ASMs. Currently prescribed ASMs, among others, include phenytoin, levetiracetam, brivaracetam, carbamazepine, cenobamate, clobazam, lamotrigine, valproate, oxcarbazepine, topiramate, lacosamide, ethosuximide, perampanel, cannabidiol, eslicarbazepine acetate, gabapentin and fenfluramine. The FDA has not yet approved any drug products specifically for KCNQ2-DEE or for SCN8A-DEE. There are other ASMs in clinical development that could potentially compete with our products, including products in development from Angelini Pharma, Biohaven Pharmaceutical Holding Company, Ltd, Eliem Therapeutics, Inc., Eisai Co., Ltd., Epygenix Therapeutics, Inc., Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Jazz Pharmaceuticals plc, Longboard Pharmaceuticals Inc., Marinus Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Neurocrine Biosciences, Praxis Precision Medicines, Inc., QurAlis Corporation, SK Life Science Inc., Stoke Therapeutics Inc., Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Ltd., Taysha Gene Therapies, Inc., UCB, Inc., and Zogenix Inc.  

Government Regulation

We are developing small-molecule product candidates, which are regulated as drugs by the FDA and equivalent regulatory authorities outside the U.S. Within the FDA, the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, or CDER, regulates drugs. Drugs are subject to regulation under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, or FD&C Act, and other federal, provincial, state, local and foreign statutes and regulations. The FD&C Act and corresponding regulations govern, among other things, the testing, manufacturing, safety, efficacy, labeling, packaging, storage, record keeping, distribution, import, export, reporting, advertising and other promotional practices involving drugs. FDA approval of an IND application must be obtained before clinical testing of drugs is initiated, and each clinical study protocol for such product candidates is reviewed by the FDA and IRB prior to initiation in the U.S. FDA approval also must be obtained before marketing of drugs in the U.S. The process of obtaining regulatory approvals and the subsequent compliance with appropriate federal, provincial, state, local and foreign statutes and regulations require the expenditure of substantial time and financial resources and we may not be able to obtain the required regulatory approvals.

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U.S. Drug Development Process

The process required by the FDA before a drug product may be marketed in the U.S. generally involves the following:

Human clinical studies are typically conducted in three sequential phases that may overlap or be combined:

Post-approval clinical studies, sometimes referred to as Phase 4 clinical studies, may be conducted after initial marketing approval. These clinical studies are used to gain additional experience from the treatment of patients in the intended therapeutic indication, particularly for long-term safety follow-up. During all phases of clinical development, regulatory agencies require extensive monitoring and auditing of all clinical activities, clinical data, and clinical study investigators.

Concurrent with clinical studies, companies usually complete additional animal studies and must also develop additional information about the physical characteristics of the drug as well as finalize a process for manufacturing the product in commercial quantities in accordance with GMP requirements. The manufacturing process must be capable of consistently producing quality batches of the product candidate and, among other requirements, the sponsor must develop methods for ensuring the quality, identity, strength, and purity of the final drug. Additionally, appropriate packaging must be selected and tested and stability studies must be conducted to demonstrate that the drug candidate does not undergo unacceptable deterioration over its labeled shelf life.

Further, as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, we may be required to develop and implement additional clinical trial policies and procedures designed to help protect subjects from the COVID-19 virus. For example, the FDA has issued guidance on conducting clinical trials during the pandemic, which describes a number of considerations for sponsors of clinical trials impacted by the pandemic, including certain reporting requirements, and additional guidance on the good manufacturing practice considerations for responding to COVID-19 infection and other topics. We may be required to make further adjustments to our clinical trials or business operations based on current or future guidance and regulatory requirements as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.

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U.S. Review and Approval Processes

After the completion of clinical studies of a drug, FDA approval of an NDA must be obtained before commercial marketing of the drug. The NDA must include results of product development, laboratory and animal studies, human studies, information on the manufacture and composition of the product, proposed labeling and other relevant information. In addition, under the Pediatric Research Equity Act, or PREA, an NDA or supplement to an NDA must contain data to assess the safety and effectiveness of the product for the claimed indications in all relevant pediatric subpopulations and to support dosing and administration for each pediatric subpopulation for which the product is safe and effective. The FDA may grant deferrals for submission of data or full or partial waivers. Unless otherwise required by regulation, PREA does not apply to any drug for an indication for which orphan designation has been granted. The testing and approval processes require substantial time and effort and there can be no assurance that the FDA will accept the NDA for filing and, even if filed, that any approval will be granted on a timely basis, if at all.

Under the Prescription Drug User Fee Act, or PDUFA, as amended, each NDA must be accompanied by a substantial user fee. PDUFA also imposes an annual product fee for drugs and an annual establishment fee on facilities used to manufacture prescription drugs. Fee waivers or reductions are available in certain circumstances, including a waiver of the application fee for the first application filed by a small business. Additionally, no user fees are assessed on NDAs for products designated as orphan drugs, unless the product also includes a non-orphan indication.

Within 60 days following submission of the application, the FDA reviews the NDA to determine if it is substantially complete before the agency accepts it for filing. The FDA may refuse to file any marketing application that it deems incomplete or not properly reviewable at the time of submission and may request additional information, including additional clinical data. In this event, the NDA must be resubmitted with the additional information. The resubmitted application also is subject to review before the FDA accepts it for filing. Once the submission is accepted for filing, the FDA begins an in-depth substantive review of the NDA. The FDA reviews the application to determine, among other things, whether the proposed product is safe and effective for its intended use, and whether the product is being manufactured in accordance with GMPs. The FDA may refer applications for novel products or products that present difficult questions of safety or efficacy to an advisory committee, typically a panel that includes clinicians and other experts, for review, evaluation and a recommendation as to whether the application should be approved and under what conditions. The FDA is not bound by the recommendations of an advisory committee, but it considers such recommendations carefully when making decisions. During the product approval process, the FDA also will determine whether a Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy, or REMS, is necessary to assure the safe use of the product. If the FDA concludes a REMS is needed, the sponsor of the NDA must submit a proposed REMS; the FDA will not approve the application without a REMS, if required.

Notwithstanding the submission of relevant data and information, the FDA may ultimately decide that the NDA does not satisfy its regulatory criteria for approval and deny approval. Data obtained from clinical studies are not always conclusive and the FDA may interpret data differently than we interpret the same data. If the agency decides not to approve the marketing application, the FDA will issue a Complete Response letter that usually describes all of the specific deficiencies in the application identified by the FDA. The deficiencies identified may be minor, for example, requiring labeling changes, or major, for example, requiring additional clinical studies. Additionally, the Complete Response letter may include recommended actions that the applicant might take to place the application in a condition for approval. If a Complete Response letter is issued, the applicant may either resubmit the NDA, addressing all of the deficiencies identified in the letter, or withdraw the application.

If a product receives regulatory approval, the approval will be limited to the specific diseases and dosages studied in clinical trials or the indications for use may otherwise be limited, which could restrict the commercial value of the product. Further, the FDA may require that certain contraindications, warnings or precautions be included in the product labeling. The FDA may impose restrictions and conditions on product distribution, prescribing, or dispensing pursuant to a REMS request, or otherwise limit the scope of any approval.

One of the performance goals agreed to by the FDA under the PDUFA is to complete its review of 90% of standard new molecular entity, or NME, NDAs within ten months from the filing date and 90% of priority NME NDAs within six months from the filing date, whereupon a review decision is to be made. The FDA does not always meet its PDUFA goal dates and its review goals are subject to change from time to time. The review process and the PDUFA goal date may be extended by three months if the FDA requests or the application sponsor otherwise provides additional information or clarification regarding information already provided in the submission within the last three months before the PDUFA goal date.

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Fast Track Designation

The FDA has various programs, including Fast Track, which are intended to expedite the process for the development and review of drugs. Even if a drug qualifies for one or more of these programs, the FDA may later decide that the drug no longer meets the conditions for qualification. Generally, drugs that are eligible for these programs are those for serious or life-threatening conditions, those with the potential to address unmet medical needs, and those that offer meaningful benefits over existing treatments. For example, Fast Track is a process designed to expedite the FDA’s review of drugs that treat serious or life-threatening diseases or conditions and fill unmet medical needs. Under the Fast Track process, drugs that offer major advances in treatment or provide a treatment where no adequate therapy exists, may also receive priority review by the FDA, or review within six months of the filing of an NDA compared to a traditional review time of ten months. Although Fast Track and priority review do not affect the standards for approval of a drug, and may not result in a faster approval, if approval is granted, for Fast Track designated drugs, the FDA will also attempt to facilitate early and frequent meetings with a sponsor of a Fast Track designated drug, to expedite such drug’s review and development.

Orphan Drug Designation

Under the Orphan Drug Act, the FDA may grant orphan designation to a drug intended to treat a rare disease or condition, which is generally a disease or condition that affects fewer than 200,000 individuals in the U.S., or more than 200,000 individuals in the U.S. and for which there is no reasonable expectation that the cost of developing and making a drug available in the U.S. for this type of disease or condition will be recovered from sales of the product. We have received orphan drug designation from the FDA for XEN496 (active ingredient ezogabine), a drug we are evaluating in a Phase 3 clinical trial for the treatment of KCNQ2-DEE. Orphan product designation must be requested before submitting an NDA. After the FDA grants orphan product designation, the identity of the therapeutic agent and its potential orphan use are disclosed publicly by the FDA. Orphan product designation does not convey any advantage in or shorten the duration of the regulatory review and approval process.

Orphan drug products may also be eligible for RPD designation if greater than 50% of patients living with the disease are under age 19 and the condition affects fewer than 200,000 individuals in the U.S. A priority review voucher will be given to the sponsor of a product with an RPD designation at the time of product approval that is transferable to another company.

If a product that has orphan designation subsequently receives the first FDA approval for such drug for the disease or condition for which it has such designation, the product is entitled to orphan product exclusivity, which means that the FDA may not approve any other applications to market the same drug for the same indication for seven years, except in limited circumstances, such as a showing of clinical superiority to the product with orphan exclusivity. Competitors, however, may receive approval of different products for the same indication for which the orphan product has exclusivity or obtain approval for the same product but for a different indication for which the orphan product has exclusivity. Orphan product exclusivity also could block the approval of one of our products for seven years if a competitor obtains approval of the same product for the same orphan indication as defined by the FDA, or if our product candidate is determined to be contained within the competitor’s product for the same orphan indication or disease. If a drug designated as an orphan product receives marketing approval for an indication broader than what is designated, it may not be entitled to orphan product exclusivity. Orphan drug status in the EU has similar, but not identical, benefits, including up to ten years of exclusivity.

Post-Approval Requirements

Rigorous and extensive FDA regulation of drug continues after approval, particularly with respect to GMP. We will rely, and expect to continue to rely, on third parties for the production of clinical and commercial quantities of any products that we may commercialize. Manufacturers of our products are required to comply with applicable requirements in the GMP regulations, including quality control and quality assurance and maintenance of records and documentation. Other post-approval requirements applicable to drug manufacturers, include reporting of GMP deviations that may affect the safety, efficacy or quality of a distributed product, record-keeping requirements, reporting of adverse effects, reporting updated safety and efficacy information, and complying with electronic record and signature requirements.

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We also must comply with the FDA’s advertising and promotion requirements, such as those related to direct-to-consumer advertising, the prohibition on promoting products for uses or in patient populations that are not described in or are otherwise inconsistent with the product’s approved labeling (known as “off-label use”), and industry-sponsored scientific and educational activities. Discovery of previously unknown problems or the failure to comply with the applicable regulatory requirements may result in restrictions on the marketing of a product or withdrawal of the product from the market as well as possible civil or criminal sanctions. Failure to comply with the applicable U.S. requirements at any time during the product development process, approval process or after approval, may subject an applicant or manufacturer to administrative or judicial civil or criminal sanctions and adverse publicity. FDA sanctions could include refusal to approve pending applications, withdrawal of an approval, clinical hold, warning or untitled letters, product recalls, product seizures, total or partial suspension of production or distribution, injunctions, fines, refusals of government contracts, mandated corrective advertising or communications with doctors, debarment, restitution, disgorgement of profits, or civil or criminal penalties. Any agency or judicial enforcement action could have a material adverse effect on us.

Drug manufacturers and other entities involved in the manufacture and distribution of approved drugs are required to register their establishments with the FDA and certain state agencies, and are subject to periodic unannounced inspections by the FDA and certain state agencies for compliance with GMPs and other laws. Accordingly, manufacturers must continue to expend time, money, and effort in the area of production and quality control to maintain GMP compliance. Discovery of problems with a product after approval may result in restrictions on a product, manufacturer, or holder of an approved NDA, including withdrawal of the product from the market. In addition, changes to the manufacturing process or facility generally require prior FDA approval before being implemented and other types of changes to the approved product, such as adding new indications and additional labeling claims, are also subject to further FDA review and approval.

Controlled Substance Regulation

The United States Controlled Substances Act, or CSA, establishes registration, security, recordkeeping, reporting, storage, distribution and other requirements administered by the Drug Enforcement Administration, or DEA. The DEA is concerned with the control of handlers of controlled substances, and with the equipment and raw materials used in their manufacture and packaging, in order to prevent loss and diversion into illicit channels of commerce. The DEA regulates controlled substances as Schedule I, II, III, IV or V substances. Schedule I substances by definition have a high potential for abuse, have no established medicinal use, and may not be marketed or sold in the United States. A pharmaceutical product may be listed as Schedule II, III, IV or V, with Schedule II substances considered to present the highest risk of abuse and Schedule V substances the lowest relative risk of abuse among such substances. Annual registration is required for any facility that manufactures, distributes, dispenses, imports or exports any controlled substance. The registration is specific to the particular location, activity and controlled substance schedule. For example, separate registrations are needed for import and manufacturing, and each registration will specify which schedules of controlled substances are authorized.

The DEA typically inspects a facility to review its security measures prior to issuing a registration. Security requirements vary by controlled substance schedule, with the most stringent requirements applying to Schedule I and Schedule II substances. Required security measures include background checks on employees and physical control of inventory through measures such as cages, surveillance cameras and inventory reconciliations. Records must be maintained for the handling of all controlled substances, and periodic reports made to the DEA. Reports must also be made for thefts or losses of any controlled substance, and to obtain authorization to destroy any controlled substance. In addition, special authorization and notification requirements apply to imports and exports.

The DEA conducts periodic inspections of certain registered establishments that handle controlled substances. Failure to maintain compliance with applicable requirements, particularly as manifested in loss or diversion, can result in enforcement action that could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition. The DEA may seek civil penalties, refuse to renew necessary registrations, or initiate proceedings to restrict, suspend or revoke those registrations. In certain circumstances, violations could result in criminal proceedings. Individual states also regulate controlled substances, and we and our contract manufacturers will be subject to state regulation on distribution of these products, including licensing, recordkeeping and security.

Controlled substances are also regulated pursuant to several international drug control treaties. These treaties are enforced by the United National Commission on Narcotic Drugs. The United States is a signatory to these treaties and thus must conform its laws and regulations to the international requirements, which generally include licensing, recordkeeping and reporting requirements. Any change in the international treaties regarding classification of these products could affect regulation of these substances in the United States and in other countries. Further, marketing approval and controlled substance classification procedures vary among countries, can involve additional testing and administrative review periods, and may be otherwise complicated if our product candidates contain ingredients already classified as controlled substances in the countries where we develop them, which could make such product candidates subject to applicable controlled substances laws prior to commercialization. Foreign regulation of controlled substances can differ significantly from U.S. DEA and state regulations. The time required to obtain marketing approval and controlled substance classification in other countries may differ from and be longer than that required to obtain FDA approval and DEA classification in the U.S.

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U.S. Patent Term Restoration and Marketing Exclusivity

Depending upon the timing, duration and specifics of the FDA approval of the use of our product candidates, some of our U.S. patents may be eligible for limited patent term extension under the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984, commonly referred to as the Hatch-Waxman Amendments. The Hatch-Waxman Amendments permit a patent restoration term of up to five years as compensation for patent term lost during product development and the FDA regulatory review process. However, patent term restoration cannot extend the remaining term of a patent beyond a total of 14 years from the product’s approval date. Only one patent applicable to an approved product is eligible for the extension and the application for the extension must be submitted prior to the expiration of the patent. The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, in consultation with the FDA, reviews and approves the application for any patent term extension or restoration.

Under the Hatch-Waxman Amendments, a drug product containing a new chemical entity as its active ingredient is entitled to five years of market exclusivity, and a product whose active ingredient was previously FDA approved, and for which the sponsor is required to generate new clinical data is entitled to three years of market exclusivity. A drug can also obtain pediatric market exclusivity in the U.S. and, if granted, adds six months to existing exclusivity periods and patent terms. This six-month exclusivity, which runs from the end of other exclusivity protection or patent term, may be granted based on the timely, voluntary, and as-agreed upon completion of a pediatric study in accordance with an FDA-issued “Written Request” for such a study.

Additional Regulation

In addition to the foregoing, provincial, state and federal U.S. and Canadian laws regarding environmental protection and hazardous substances affect our business. These and other laws govern our use, handling and disposal of various biological, chemical and radioactive substances used in, and wastes generated by, our operations. If our operations result in contamination of the environment or expose individuals to hazardous substances, we could be liable for damages and governmental fines. We believe that we are in material compliance with applicable environmental laws and that continued compliance therewith will not have a material adverse effect on our business. We cannot predict, however, how changes in these laws may affect our future operations.

Global Anti-Corruption Laws

The U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act and the Canadian Corruption of Foreign Public Officials Act, the U.S. Travel Act, the OECD Anti-Bribery Convention, Title 18 United States Code section 201, and any other applicable domestic or foreign anti-corruption or anti-bribery laws to which we are subject prohibit corporations and individuals from engaging in certain activities to obtain or retain business or to influence a person working in an official capacity. It is illegal to pay, offer to pay or authorize the payment of anything of value to any foreign government official, government staff member, political party or political candidate in an attempt to obtain or retain business or to otherwise influence a person working in an official capacity. We may also be held liable for the acts of our third party agents under the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, Canadian Corruption of Foreign Public Officials Act, and other applicable anti-corruption and anti-bribery laws. Noncompliance with these laws could subject us to investigations, sanctions, settlements, prosecution, other enforcement actions, disgorgement of profits, significant fines, damages, other civil and criminal penalties or injunctions, suspension or debarment from contracting with certain persons, the loss of export privileges, whistleblower complaints, reputational harm, adverse media coverage, and other collateral consequences. Any investigations, actions or sanctions or other previously mentioned harm could have a material negative effect on our business, operating results and financial condition.

Government Regulation Outside of the U.S.

In addition to regulations in the U.S., we will be subject to a variety of regulations in other jurisdictions governing, among other things, research, development, testing, manufacture, quality control, controlled substances, approval, labeling, packaging, storage, record-keeping, promotion, advertising, distribution, post-approval monitoring and reporting, marketing and export and import of drugs, and reimbursement requirements. Generally, before a new drug can be marketed, considerable data demonstrating its quality, safety and efficacy must be obtained, organized into a format specific for each regulatory authority, submitted for review and approved by the regulatory authority. Whether or not we obtain FDA approval for a product, we must obtain the requisite approvals from regulatory authorities in foreign countries prior to the commencement of clinical studies or marketing of the product in those countries. Certain countries outside of the U.S. have a similar process that requires the submission of a clinical study application much like the IND prior to the commencement of human clinical studies. In the EU, for example, a CTA must be submitted to each country’s national health authority and an independent ethics committee, much like the FDA and the IRB, respectively. Once the CTA is approved in accordance with a country’s requirements, clinical study development may proceed. Similar requirements regarding a CTA and ethics approval exist in Canada.

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The requirements and process governing the conduct of clinical studies, product licensing, coverage, pricing and reimbursement vary from country to country. In all cases, the clinical studies are conducted in accordance with GCP and the applicable regulatory requirements and the ethical principles that have their origin in the Declaration of Helsinki. The EU clinical trials legislation currently is undergoing a transition process mainly aimed at harmonizing and streamlining clinical-trial authorization, simplifying adverse-event reporting procedures, improving the supervision of clinical trials and increasing their transparency. The Clinical Trials Regulation EU No 536/2014, which replaced the Clinical Trials Directive, entered into application on January 31, 2022, is intended to simplify the current rules for clinical trial authorization and standards of performance. For instance, there will be a streamlined application procedure via a single-entry point, a European Union portal and database.

To obtain regulatory approval of an investigational drug under EU regulatory systems, we must submit a marketing authorization application, or MAA. The application used to file the NDA in the U.S. is similar to that required in the EU, with the exception of, among other things, country-specific document requirements. Reimbursement approval for the drug by regulatory authorities is also required before a drug may be commercialized. The EU also provides opportunities for market exclusivity. For example, in the EU, upon receiving marketing authorization, new chemical entities generally receive eight years of data exclusivity and an additional two years of market exclusivity. If granted, data exclusivity prevents regulatory authorities in the EU from referencing the innovator’s data to assess a generic application. During the additional two-year period of market exclusivity, a generic marketing authorization can be submitted, and the innovator’s data may be referenced, but no generic product can be marketed until the expiration of the market exclusivity. However, there is no guarantee that a product will be considered by the EU’s regulatory authorities to be a new chemical entity, and products may not qualify for data exclusivity. Products receiving orphan designation in the EU can receive ten years of market exclusivity, during which time no similar medicinal product for the same indication may be placed on the market. An orphan product can also obtain an additional two years of market exclusivity in the EU for pediatric studies. No extension to any supplementary protection certificate can be granted on the basis of pediatric studies for orphan indications.

The criteria for designating an “orphan medicinal product” in the EU are similar in principle to those in the U.S. Under Article 3 of Regulation (EC) 141/2000, a medicinal product may be designated as orphan if (1) it is intended for the diagnosis, prevention or treatment of a life-threatening or chronically debilitating condition; (2) either (a) such condition affects no more than five in 10,000 persons in the EU when the application is made, or (b) the product, without the benefits derived from orphan status, would not generate sufficient return in the EU to justify investment; and (3) there exists no satisfactory method of diagnosis, prevention or treatment of such condition authorized for marketing in the EU, or if such a method exists, the product will be of significant benefit to those affected by the condition, as defined in Regulation (EC) 847/2000. Orphan medicinal products are eligible for financial incentives such as reduction of fees or fee waivers and are, upon grant of a marketing authorization, entitled to ten years of market exclusivity for the approved therapeutic indication. The application for orphan drug designation must be submitted before the application for marketing authorization. The applicant will receive a fee reduction for the marketing authorization application if the orphan drug designation has been granted, but not if the designation is still pending at the time the marketing authorization is submitted. Orphan drug designation does not convey any advantage in, or shorten the duration of, the regulatory review and approval process.

The 10-year market exclusivity may be reduced to six years if, at the end of the fifth year, it is established that the product no longer meets the criteria for orphan designation, for example, if the product is sufficiently profitable not to justify maintenance of market exclusivity. Additionally, marketing authorization may be granted to a similar product for the same indication at any time if:

For other countries outside of the EU, such as Canada and countries in Eastern Europe, Latin America or Asia, the requirements governing the conduct of clinical studies, product and establishment licensing, coverage, data protection, pricing and reimbursement vary from country to country. In all cases, again, the clinical studies are conducted in accordance with GCP and the applicable regulatory requirements and the ethical principles that have their origin in the Declaration of Helsinki.

If we fail to comply with applicable foreign regulatory requirements, we may be subject to, among other things, fines, suspension or withdrawal of regulatory approvals, product recalls, inability to import or export, seizure of products, operating restrictions and criminal prosecution.

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Pharmaceutical Coverage, Pricing and Reimbursement

Significant uncertainty exists as to the coverage and reimbursement status of any product candidates for which we obtain regulatory approval. In the U.S. and markets in other countries, sales of any products for which we receive regulatory approval for commercial sale will depend, in part, on the availability of coverage and adequate reimbursement from third-party payers. Third-party payers include government programs such as Medicare or Medicaid, managed care plans, private health insurers, and other organizations. These third-party payers may deny coverage or reimbursement for a product or therapy in whole or in part if they determine that the product or therapy was not medically appropriate or necessary. Third-party payers may attempt to control costs by limiting coverage to specific drug products on an approved list, or formulary, which might not include all of the FDA-approved drug products for a particular indication, and by limiting the amount of reimbursement for particular procedures or drug treatments.

The cost of pharmaceuticals continues to generate substantial governmental and third party payer interest. We expect that the pharmaceutical industry will experience pricing pressures due to the trend toward managed healthcare, the increasing influence of managed care organizations and additional legislative proposals. Third-party payers are increasingly challenging the price and examining the medical necessity and cost-effectiveness of medical products and services, in addition to their safety and efficacy. We may need to conduct expensive pharmacoeconomic studies in order to demonstrate the medical necessity and cost-effectiveness of our products, in addition to the costs required to obtain the FDA approvals. Our product candidates may not be considered medically necessary or cost-effective. A payer’s decision to provide coverage for a drug product does not imply that an adequate reimbursement rate will be approved. Adequate third-party reimbursement may not be available to enable us to maintain price levels sufficient to realize an appropriate return on our investment in product development.

Some third-party payers also require pre-approval or prior authorization of coverage for new or innovative drug therapies before they will reimburse healthcare providers who prescribe such therapies or patients who use such prescription drugs. While we cannot predict whether any proposed cost-containment measures will be adopted or otherwise implemented in the future, these requirements or any announcement or adoption of such proposals could have a material adverse effect on our ability to obtain adequate prices for our product candidates and to operate profitably.

In international markets, reimbursement and healthcare payment systems vary significantly by country, and many countries have instituted price ceilings on specific products and therapies. There can be no assurance that our products will be considered medically reasonable and necessary for a specific indication, that our products will be considered cost-effective by third-party payers, that coverage or an adequate level of reimbursement will be available or that the third-party payers’ reimbursement policies will not adversely affect our ability to sell our products profitably.

In addition, in many foreign countries, the proposed pricing for a drug must be approved before it may be lawfully marketed. The requirements governing drug pricing and reimbursement vary widely from country to country. For example, the EU provides options for its member states to restrict the range of medicinal products for which their national health insurance systems provide reimbursement and to control the prices of medicinal products for human use. A member state may approve a specific price for the medicinal product or it may instead adopt a system of direct or indirect controls on the profitability of the company placing the medicinal product on the market. There can be no assurance that any country that has price controls or reimbursement limitations for pharmaceutical products will allow favorable reimbursement and pricing arrangements for any of our products. Historically, products launched in the EU do not follow price structures of the United States and generally prices tend to be significantly lower.

Healthcare Reform

In the U.S. and foreign jurisdictions, there have been a number of legislative and regulatory changes to the healthcare system that could affect our future results of operations. In particular, there have been and continue to be a number of initiatives at the U.S. federal and state levels that seek to reduce healthcare costs.

In the U.S., the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act of 2003, or the Medicare Modernization Act, changed the way Medicare covers and pays for pharmaceutical products. The Medicare Modernization Act expanded Medicare coverage for drug purchases by the elderly by establishing Medicare Part D and introduced a new reimbursement methodology based on average sales prices for physician administered drugs under Medicare Part B. In addition, this legislation provided authority for limiting the number of drugs that will be covered in any therapeutic class under the new Medicare Part D program. Cost reduction initiatives and other provisions of this legislation could decrease the coverage and reimbursement rate that our customers receive for any of our approved products. While the Medicare Modernization Act applies only to drug benefits for Medicare beneficiaries, private payers often follow Medicare coverage policy and payment limitations in setting their own reimbursement rates. Therefore, any reduction in reimbursement that results from the Medicare Modernization Act may result in a similar reduction in payments from private payers.

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Enacted in March 2010, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, as amended, or PPACA, is a sweeping law intended to broaden access to health insurance, reduce or constrain the growth of healthcare spending, enhance remedies against healthcare fraud and abuse, add new transparency requirements for healthcare and health insurance industries, impose new taxes and fees on pharmaceutical and medical device manufacturers and impose additional health policy reforms. Among other things, PPACA revises the definition of “average manufacturer price” for reporting purposes, which could increase the amount of Medicaid drug rebates to states. Further, the PPACA also imposes a significant annual fee on companies that manufacture or import branded prescription drug products. Other legislative changes have been proposed and adopted since PPACA was enacted. These new laws may result in reductions in Medicare and other healthcare funding, which could have a material adverse effect on our customers and accordingly, our financial operations. For example, in 2020, HHS and CMS issued various rules that are expected to impact, among others, price reductions from pharmaceutical manufacturers to plan sponsors under Part D, fee arrangements between pharmacy benefit managers and manufacturers, importation of prescription drugs from Canada and other countries, manufacturer price reporting requirements under the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program, including regulations that affect manufacturer-sponsored patient assistance programs subject to pharmacy benefit manager accumulator programs and Best Price reporting related to certain value-based purchasing arrangements. Multiple lawsuits have been brought against the HHS challenging various aspects of these rules implemented during the Trump administration. As a result, the Biden administration and HHS have delayed the implementation or published rules rescinding some of these Trump-era policies. The impact of these lawsuits as well as legislative, executive, and administrative actions of the current administration on us and the pharmaceutical industry as a whole is unclear.

We expect that PPACA, as well as other healthcare reform measures that have been and may be adopted in the future, may result in more rigorous coverage criteria and in additional downward pressure on the price that we receive for any approved product, and could seriously harm our future revenue. Any reduction in reimbursement from Medicare or other government programs may result in a similar reduction in payments from private payers. The implementation of cost containment measures or other healthcare reforms may prevent us from being able to generate revenue, attain profitability, or commercialize our products.

Since its enactment, there remain judicial and Congressional challenges to certain aspects of the PPACA, and we expect there will be additional challenges and amendments to the PPACA in the future. Any changes to the PPACA are likely to have an impact on our results of operations, and may have a material adverse effect on our business. In particular, in June 2021 the U.S. Supreme Court held that Texas and other challengers had no legal standing to challenge the PPACA, dismissing the case on procedural grounds without specifically ruling on the constitutionality of the PPACA. Thus, the PPACA will remain in effect in its current form. We cannot predict how this decision or future litigation will impact our business, or what other healthcare measures and regulations will ultimately be implemented at the federal or state level or their effect on our business.

In addition, different pricing and reimbursement schemes exist in other countries. In the European Community, governments influence the price of pharmaceutical products through their pricing and reimbursement rules and control of national healthcare systems that fund a large part of the cost of those products to consumers. Some jurisdictions operate positive and negative list systems under which products may be marketed only once a reimbursement price has been agreed upon. Some of these countries may require, as condition of obtaining reimbursement or pricing approval, the completion of clinical trials that compare the cost-effectiveness of a particular product candidate to currently available therapies. Other member states allow companies to fix their own prices for medicines, but monitor and control company profits. The downward pressure on healthcare costs in general, particularly prescription drugs, has become very intense. As a result, increasingly high barriers are being erected to the entry of new products. In addition, in some countries, cross-border imports from low-priced markets exert a commercial pressure on pricing within a country.

Other Healthcare Laws and Compliance Requirements

In the U.S., the research, manufacturing, distribution, sale and promotion of drug products that we are developing are subject to regulation by various federal, state and local authorities in addition to the FDA, including the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, other divisions of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (e.g., the Office of Inspector General), the U.S. Department of Justice, state Attorneys General, and other state and local government agencies. For example, sales, marketing and scientific/educational grant programs must comply with applicable health care fraud and abuse laws, such as the federal Anti-Kickback Statute, the federal False Claims Act, Stark law, and implementing regulations, and similar state laws. Pricing and rebate programs must comply with the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program requirements of the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990, as amended, and the Veterans Health Care Act of 1992, as amended. If products are made available to authorized users of the Federal Supply Schedule of the General Services Administration, additional laws and requirements apply. Other laws and regulations that may apply to prescription drug manufacturers include the Sunshine Act, prescription drug price reporting requirements, and various state transparency and reporting laws. All business activities of prescription drug manufacturers are also potentially subject to federal and state consumer protection and unfair competition laws.

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The federal Anti-Kickback Statute prohibits any person, including a prescription drug manufacturer (or a party acting on its behalf), from knowingly and willfully soliciting, receiving, offering or providing remuneration, directly or indirectly, to induce or reward either the referral of an individual, or the furnishing, recommending, or arranging for a good or service, for which payment may be made under a federal healthcare program such as the Medicare and Medicaid programs. This statute can be applied broadly to include arrangements between pharmaceutical manufacturers on one hand and any referral source on the other, including prescribers, purchasers, and formulary managers. The term “remuneration” has been broadly interpreted to include anything of value, including, for example, gifts, discounts, the furnishing of supplies or equipment, credit arrangements, payments of cash, waivers of payments, ownership interests, and service fees, unless expressly exempted or protected by a safe harbor. Further, the statute has been interpreted to cover any arrangement where one purpose of the remuneration was to obtain remuneration in exchange for referral or to induce further referrals for an item or service. Although there are a number of statutory exemptions and regulatory safe harbors protecting certain legitimate business arrangements from prosecution, the exemptions and safe harbors are drawn narrowly, and practices that involve remuneration intended to induce prescribing, purchasing or recommending may be subject to scrutiny if they do not qualify for an exemption or safe harbor. Our practices may not in all cases meet all of the criteria of an applicable safe harbor for protection from liability under the federal Anti-Kickback Statute. The reach of the Anti-Kickback Statute was broadened by PPACA, which, among other things, amends the intent requirement of the federal Anti-Kickback Statute such that the government does not need to prove that a person had the intent to specifically violate the statute in order to find a violation. In addition, the PPACA provides that the government may assert that a claim including items or services resulting from a violation of the federal Anti-Kickback Statute constitutes a false or fraudulent claim for purposes of the federal False Claims Act (discussed below) or the civil monetary penalties statute, which imposes fines against any person who is determined to have presented or caused to be presented claims to a federal healthcare program that the person knows or should know is for an item or service that was not provided as claimed or is false or fraudulent. Additionally, many states have adopted laws similar to the federal Anti-Kickback Statute, and some of these state prohibitions apply to referral of patients for healthcare items or services reimbursed by any third-party payer, not only the Medicare and Medicaid programs in at least some cases, and do not expressly provide for certain safe harbors or impose different requirements for safe harbor protection under applicable state laws.

The federal False Claims Act imposes liability on any person or entity that, among other things, knowingly presents, or causes to be presented, a false or fraudulent claim for payment by a federal healthcare program. The qui tam provisions of the False Claims Act allow a private individual to bring civil actions on behalf of the federal government alleging that the defendant has submitted or cause to be submitted a false claim to the federal government, and to share in any monetary recovery. In recent years, the number of suits brought by private individuals has increased dramatically. In addition, various states have enacted false claims laws analogous to the False Claims Act. Many of these state laws apply where a claim is submitted to any third-party payer and not merely a federal healthcare program. There are many potential bases for liability under the False Claims Act. Liability arises, primarily, when an entity knowingly submits, or causes another to submit, a false claim for reimbursement to the federal government. The False Claims Act has been used to assert liability on the basis of inadequate care, kickbacks and other improper referrals, improperly reported government pricing metrics such as Best Price or Average Manufacturer Price, improper use of Medicare numbers when detailing the provider of services, improper promotion of off-label uses (i.e., uses not expressly approved by FDA in a drug’s label), and allegations as to misrepresentations with respect to the services rendered. Our future activities relating to the reporting of discount and rebate information and other information affecting federal, provincial, state and third party reimbursement of our products, and the sale and marketing of our products and our service arrangements or data purchases, among other activities, may be subject to scrutiny under these laws. We are unable to predict whether we would be subject to actions under the False Claims Act or a similar state law, or the impact of such actions. However, the cost of defending such claims, as well as any sanctions imposed, could adversely affect our financial performance. Also, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996, or HIPAA, created several new federal crimes, including healthcare fraud, and false statements relating to healthcare matters. The healthcare fraud statute prohibits knowingly and willfully executing a scheme to defraud any healthcare benefit program, including private third-party payers. The false statements statute prohibits knowingly and willfully falsifying, concealing or covering up a material fact or making any materially false, fictitious or fraudulent statement in connection with the delivery of or payment for healthcare benefits, items or services.

In addition, we may be subject to, or our marketing activities may be limited by, data privacy and security regulation in the U.S. and foreign jurisdictions in which we conduct our business, including jurisdictions in which we conduct our clinical trials. For example, HIPAA and its implementing regulations established uniform federal standards for certain “covered entities” (healthcare providers, health plans and healthcare clearinghouses) governing the conduct of certain electronic healthcare transactions and protecting the security and privacy of protected health information. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 included expansion of HIPAA’s privacy and security standards called the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act, or HITECH. Among other things, HITECH makes HIPAA’s privacy and security standards directly applicable to “business associates”—independent contractors or agents of covered entities that create, receive, maintain, or transmit protected health information in connection with providing a service for or on behalf of a covered entity. HITECH also increased the civil and criminal penalties that may be imposed against covered entities, business associates and possibly other persons, and gave state attorneys general new authority to file civil actions for damages or injunctions in federal courts to enforce the federal HIPAA laws and seek attorney’s fees and costs associated with pursuing federal civil actions.

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In addition, in May 2016, the EU formally adopted the General Data Protection Regulation, or GDPR, which applies to all EU member states from May 25, 2018 and replaced the European Union Data Protection Directive. The GDPR has imposed many new or additional requirements including, but not limited to, obtaining consent of the individuals to whom the personal data relates, the nature and scope of notifications provided to the individuals, the security and confidentiality of the personal data, data breach notification and using third party processors in connection with the processing of the personal data. Failure to comply with the GDPR could subject us to regulatory sanctions, delays in clinical trials, criminal prosecution and/or civil fines or penalties. Additionally, GDPR creates a direct cause of action by individual data subjects. The GDPR is a complex law and the regulatory guidance is still evolving, including with respect to how the GDPR should be applied in the context of clinical trials or other transactions from that we may gain access to personal data. In 2021, the UK became a “third country” under the GDPR. These changes in the law will increase our costs of compliance and result in greater legal risks. Other countries maintain different privacy laws that we are subject to.

The Physician Payment Sunshine Act, or the Sunshine Act, requires applicable manufacturers and certain distributors of prescription drugs, among other products, that are available for coverage by Medicare, Medicaid or the Children’s Health Insurance Program to report annually to the Secretary of HHS: (i) payments or other transfers of value made by that entity, or by a third-party as directed by that entity, to covered recipients, such as physicians (defined to include doctors, dentists, optometrists, podiatrists and chiropractors), certain non-physician healthcare professionals (such as physician assistants and nurse practitioners, among others), and teaching hospitals or to third parties on behalf of such physicians, non-physician healthcare professionals or teaching hospitals; and (ii) physician ownership (including immediate family member’s ownership) and investment interests in the entity. There are also an increasing number of state and local “sunshine” or transparency and reporting laws that require applicable manufacturers to make reports to states on pricing and marketing information. The U.S. federal government discloses the reported information on a publicly available website. Several states have enacted legislation requiring pharmaceutical companies to, among other things, establish marketing compliance programs, file periodic reports with the state, make periodic public disclosures on sales, marketing, pricing, clinical trials and other activities, and/or register their sales representatives, as well as to prohibit pharmacies and other healthcare entities from providing certain physician prescribing data to pharmaceutical companies for use in sales and marketing, and to prohibit certain other sales and marketing practices. These federal, state, and local laws may affect our sales, marketing, and other promotional activities by imposing administrative and compliance burdens on us. If we fail to track and report as required by these laws or otherwise comply with these laws, we could be subject to the penalty provisions of the pertinent state and federal authorities.

Because of the breadth of these health care laws and the narrowness of available statutory and regulatory exemptions, it is possible that some of our business activities could be subject to challenge under one or more of such laws. If our operations are found to be in violation of any of the federal and state laws described above or any other governmental regulations that apply to us, we may be subject to penalties, including criminal and significant civil monetary penalties, damages, fines, imprisonment, exclusion from participation in government healthcare programs, injunctions, recall or seizure of products, total or partial suspension of production, denial or withdrawal of pre-marketing product approvals, private qui tam actions brought by individual whistleblowers in the name of the government or refusal to allow us to enter into supply contracts, including government contracts, the curtailment or restructuring of our operations, and corporate integrity agreement, which impose certain compliance, certification and reporting obligations, any of which could adversely affect our ability to operate our business and our results of operations. To the extent that any of our products are sold in a foreign country or if we contract with vendors or independent contractors outside of the U.S., we may be subject to similar foreign laws and regulations, which may include, for instance, applicable post-approval requirements, including safety surveillance, anti-corruption/anti-bribery laws,  anti-kickback laws, healthcare fraud and abuse laws, and implementation of corporate compliance programs and reporting of payments or transfers of value to healthcare professionals. While we are not aware of any current issues, we are unable to predict whether we will be subject to actions under applicable healthcare laws, or the impact of such actions on our business. However, the costs of defending such actions or claims, as well as any sanctions imposed, could result in a material adverse effect on our business or financial condition.

Environmental Matters

Our operations require the use of hazardous materials (including biological materials) which subject us to a variety of federal, provincial and local environmental and safety laws and regulations. Some of the regulations under the current regulatory structure provide for strict liability, holding a party potentially liable without regard to fault or negligence. We could be held liable for damages and fines as a result of our, or someone else’s, business operations should contamination of the environment or individual exposure to hazardous substances occur. We cannot predict how changes in laws or development of new regulations will affect our business operations or the cost of compliance.

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Human Capital

Our board of directors and management recognize that creating long term enterprise value is advanced by considering the interests and concerns of many stakeholders, including the Company’s employees. As of December 31, 2021, we employed 153 employees, including 149 full-time and part-time permanent employees, of which 136 are located in Canada and 17 are located in the United States. Of our employees, 109 were primarily engaged in research and development, 49 of whom hold a Ph.D. or M.D. (or equivalent) degree. None of our employees are represented by a labor union. We have not experienced any work stoppages and we consider our relations with our employees to be good.

As competition for qualified personnel in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical field is intense, attracting and retaining qualified employees at all levels is critical to our business. We have established comprehensive and competitive compensation, leave and benefits programs to attract and retain the highly qualified personnel essential to our business. In addition to providing our employees with competitive salaries, we believe that employees should share in the potential financial gains resulting from the advancement of our programs and our practice is to award stock options to permanent employees, both upon initial hiring and annually thereafter, and pay annual bonuses to permanent employees based on the achievement of corporate and/or personal objectives. Our leave programs include paid vacation, personal, sick, disability and other paid and unpaid leaves. Our health and wellness programs include medical, dental, vision care, retirement savings programs and other benefits.

As a biopharmaceutical company with highly educated employees, we believe that our employees must stay current with advances in our industry and continue to grow in their careers. We offer a variety of internal training and development opportunities as well as dedicated resources for colleagues to attend conferences and external professional development programs.

We are committed to diversity, equity and inclusion, or DEI, at all levels of our company, and we have established a joint management/employee DEI Committee to progress this important issue. We will continue to focus on measuring and extending our diversity and inclusion initiatives across our entire workforce. We recruit the best qualified employees regardless of gender, ethnicity or other protected traits and it is our policy to comply with all applicable laws related to discrimination in the workplace.

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, we provided many of our employees the option to work from home, implemented a halt of non-essential business travel, and offered employees the ability to access additional paid days off for child, elder and/or self-care. To support our employees who transitioned back to our premises to continue critical on-site work, we implemented additional safety and infection prevention measures including enhanced cleaning, additional personal protective equipment, and contact tracing protocols.

Manufacturing

We currently rely, and expect to continue to rely, on collaborators, either directly or through third-party contract manufacturers, or CMOs, to manufacture product candidates licensed to them or work with multiple CMOs to produce sufficient quantities of materials required for the manufacture of our product candidates for pre-clinical testing and clinical trials and intend to do so for the commercial manufacture of our products. Accordingly, we have not internally developed any manufacturing facilities or hired related personnel.

To date, we have obtained materials for our product candidates from multiple third-party manufacturers. We believe that all of the materials required for the manufacture of our product candidates can be obtained from more than one source. However, the manufacturing processes for each of our product candidates vary and sourcing adequate supplies may be made more difficult depending on the type of product candidate involved. Our product candidates generally can be manufactured in reliable and reproducible synthetic processes from readily available starting materials, excipients and packaging components. The drug substance chemistry generally is amenable to scale-up and does not require unusual equipment in the manufacturing processes.

Corporate Information

We were incorporated in the Province of British Columbia on November 5, 1996 under the predecessor to the Business Corporations Act (British Columbia) under the name “Xenon Bioresearch Inc.” We continued from British Columbia to the federal jurisdiction pursuant to Section 187 of the Canada Business Corporations Act, or the CBCA, on May 17, 2000 and concurrently changed our name to “Xenon Genetics Inc.” We registered as an extra-provincial company in British Columbia on July 10, 2000 and changed our name to “Xenon Pharmaceuticals Inc.” on August 24, 2004. We have one wholly-owned subsidiary as of December 31, 2021, Xenon Pharmaceuticals USA Inc., which was incorporated in Delaware on December 2, 2016. Our principal executive offices are located at 200 – 3650 Gilmore Way, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada V5G 4W8, and our telephone number is (604) 484-3300. We are a reporting issuer in British Columbia, Alberta and Ontario, but our shares are not listed on any recognized Canadian stock exchange. Our common shares trade on the Nasdaq Global Market under the symbol “XENE.”

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Where You Can Find Additional Information

We make available free of charge through our investor relations website, http://investor.xenon-pharma.com, our annual reports, quarterly reports, current reports, proxy statements and all amendments to those reports as soon as reasonably practicable after such material is electronically filed or furnished with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, or SEC. These reports may also be obtained without charge by contacting Investor Relations, Xenon Pharmaceuticals Inc., 200 – 3650 Gilmore Way, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada V5G 4W8, e-mail: investors@xenon-pharma.com. Our website and the information contained therein or incorporated therein are not intended to be incorporated into this Annual Report on Form 10-K. The SEC maintains a website that contains reports, proxy and information statements, and other information regarding reports that we file or furnish electronically with them at www.sec.gov. Additional information related to Xenon is also available on SEDAR at www.sedar.com.

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Item 1A. Risk Factors

You should carefully consider the following risk factors, in addition to the other information contained in this report, including the section of this report captioned “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” and our financial statements and related notes. If any of the events described in the following risk factors and the risks described elsewhere in this report occurs, our business, operating results and financial condition could be seriously harmed. This report on Form 10-K also contains forward-looking statements that involve risks and uncertainties. Our actual results could differ materially from those anticipated in the forward-looking statements as a result of factors that are described below and elsewhere in this report. Our Risk Factors are not guarantees that no such conditions exist as of the date of this report and should not be interpreted as an affirmative statement that such risks or conditions have not materialized, in whole or in part.

Risks Related to Our Financial Condition and Capital Requirements

We have incurred significant losses since our inception and anticipate that we will continue to incur significant losses for the foreseeable future.

We do not expect to have sustained profitability for the foreseeable future. We had a net loss of $78.9 million for the year ended December 31, 2021 and an accumulated deficit of $357.4 million as of December 31, 2021, which were driven by expenses incurred in connection with our research and development programs and from general and administrative costs associated with our operations.

We have devoted most of our financial resources to research and development, including our clinical and pre-clinical development activities. To date, we have financed our operations primarily through the sale of equity securities, funding received from our licensees and collaborators, and debt financing. We do not generate any revenue from product sales and our product candidates will require substantial additional investment before they may provide us with any revenue.

We expect to incur significant expenses and increasing operating losses for the foreseeable future as we:

Our expenses could increase beyond expectations for a variety of reasons, including if we are required by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, or FDA, the European Medicines Agency, or EMA, Health Canada, or other regulatory agencies, domestic or foreign, to perform clinical and other studies including post-approval commitments in addition to those that we currently anticipate. Our prior losses, combined with expected future losses, have had and will continue to have an adverse effect on our shareholders’ equity.

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We do not generate any royalty or other revenue from product sales and may never become profitable on a U.S. GAAP basis.

Our ability to generate meaningful revenue and achieve profitability on a U.S. GAAP basis depends on our ability, alone or with strategic collaborators, to successfully complete the development of, and obtain the regulatory approvals necessary to commercialize, our product candidates. Substantially all of our revenue since inception has consisted of upfront and milestone payments associated with our collaboration and license agreements. Revenue from these agreements is dependent on successful development of our product candidates by us or our collaborators. We do not generate any royalty or other revenue from product sales, and do not otherwise anticipate generating revenue from product sales for the foreseeable future, if ever. If any of our product candidates fail in clinical trials or do not gain regulatory approval, or if any of our future products, if any, once approved, fail to achieve market acceptance or adequate market share, we may never become profitable. Our ability to generate future revenue from product sales depends heavily on our success, and the success of our collaborators, in:

The scope of our future revenue will also depend upon the size of any markets in which our product candidates receive approval and the availability of insurance coverage and the availability and amount of reimbursement from third-party payers for future products, if any. If we are unable to achieve sufficient revenue to become profitable and remain so, our financial condition and operating results will be negatively impacted, and the market price of our common shares might be adversely impacted.

We will likely need to raise additional funding, which may not be available on acceptable terms, if at all. Failure to obtain this necessary capital when needed may force us to delay, limit or terminate our product development efforts or other operations.

Since our inception, we have dedicated most of our resources to the discovery and development of our pre-clinical and clinical product candidates, and we expect to continue to expend substantial resources doing so for the foreseeable future. These expenditures will include costs associated with research and development, potential milestone payments and royalties to third parties, manufacturing of product candidates and products approved for sale, conducting pre-clinical experiments and clinical trials and obtaining and maintaining regulatory approvals, as well as commercializing any products later approved for sale. During the year ended December 31, 2021, we incurred $75.5 million of costs associated with research and development, exclusive of costs incurred by our collaborators in developing our product candidates.

Our current cash and cash equivalents and marketable securities are not expected to be sufficient to complete clinical development of any of our product candidates and prepare for commercializing any product candidate which receives regulatory approval. Accordingly, we will likely require substantial additional capital to continue our clinical development and potential commercialization activities. Our future capital requirements depend on many factors, including but not limited to:

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We are unable to estimate the funds we will actually require to complete research and development of our product candidates or the funds required to commercialize any resulting product in the future.

Based on our research and development plans and our timing expectations related to the progress of our programs, we expect that our existing cash and cash equivalents and marketable securities as of the date of this report will enable us to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements for at least the next 12 months.

Our operating plan may change as a result of many factors currently unknown to us, and we may need to seek additional funds sooner than planned, through public or private equity or debt financings, government or other third-party funding, marketing and distribution arrangements and other collaborations, strategic alliances and licensing arrangements or a combination of these approaches. Raising funds in the future may present additional challenges and future financing may not be available in sufficient amounts or on terms acceptable to us, if at all.

We may allocate our limited resources to pursue a particular product candidate or indication and fail to capitalize on other product candidates or indications that may be more profitable or for which there is a greater likelihood of success.

Because we have limited financial and management resources, we focus on a limited number of research programs and product candidates. As a result, we may forgo or delay pursuit of opportunities with other product candidates or for other indications that later prove to have greater commercial potential. Our resource allocation decisions may cause us to fail to capitalize on viable commercial drugs or profitable market opportunities. Our spend on current and future research and development programs and product candidates for specific indications may not yield any commercially viable drugs. If we do not accurately evaluate the commercial potential or target market for a particular product candidate, we may relinquish valuable rights to that product candidate through collaboration, licensing or other arrangements in cases in which it would have been more advantageous for us to retain sole development and commercialization rights.

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Raising additional capital may cause dilution to our existing shareholders, restrict our operations or require us to relinquish rights to our technologies or product candidates.

The terms of any financing arrangements we enter into may adversely affect the holdings or the rights of our shareholders and the issuance of additional securities, whether equity or debt, by us, or the possibility of such issuance, may cause the market price of our common shares to decline. The sale of additional equity or convertible securities also would dilute all of our shareholders. For example, in March 2021, we completed an underwritten public offering of 5,135,135 of our common shares, including 810,810 shares sold upon the full exercise of the underwriters’ option to purchase additional shares, and pre-funded warrants to purchase 1,081,081 common shares. The common shares were offered at a public offering price of $18.50 per common share and the pre-funded warrants were offered at a price of $18.4999 per pre-funded warrant, for proceeds of $107.9 million, net of underwriting discounts, commissions and offering expenses. In September 2021, pursuant to the terms of our collaboration agreement with Neurocrine Biosciences, we issued 275,337 common shares to Neurocrine Biosciences for an aggregate purchase price of $5.5 million. In October 2021, we completed an underwritten public offering of 10,000,000 of our common shares, including 1,525,423 common shares sold upon the full exercise of the underwriters’ over-allotment option, at a public offering price of $29.50 per common share, and pre-funded warrants to purchase 1,694,915 common shares at $29.4999 per pre-funded warrant, with each pre-funded warrant having an exercise price of $0.0001. The public offering was completed on October 8, 2021, and we received proceeds of $323.9 million, net of underwriting discounts, commissions and offering expenses. In January 2022, pursuant to the terms of our collaboration agreement with Neurocrine Biosciences, we issued 258,986 common shares to Neurocrine Biosciences for an aggregate purchase price of $8.25 million. Further, we have previously entered into an “at-the-market” equity offering sales agreement in August 2020, amended as of March 2022, with Jefferies LLC, or Jefferies, and Stifel, Nicolaus & Company, Incorporated, or Stifel, pursuant to which we may sell our common shares from time to time. As of December 31, 2021, we had sold an aggregate of 733,000 common shares for proceeds of $10.7 million, net of commissions paid and transaction expenses, pursuant to the sales agreement.

Historically, we have also financed our operations through the incurrence of debt. Any future incurrence of indebtedness would result in increased fixed payment obligations and, potentially, the imposition of restrictive covenants. Such covenants could include limitations on our ability to incur additional debt, limitations on our ability to acquire, sell or license intellectual property rights and other operating restrictions that could adversely impact our ability to conduct our business. We could also be required to seek funds through arrangements with collaborators or otherwise at an earlier stage than otherwise would be desirable resulting in the loss of rights to some of our product candidates or other unfavorable terms, any of which may have a material adverse effect on our business, operating results and prospects. In addition, any additional fundraising efforts may divert our management from their day-to-day activities, which may adversely affect our ability to develop and commercialize our product candidates.

We are subject to risks associated with currency fluctuations which could impact our results of operations.

As of December 31, 2021, approximately 3% of our cash and cash equivalents and marketable securities were denominated in Canadian dollars. We incur significant expenses in Canadian dollars in connection with our operations in Canada. We do not currently engage in foreign currency hedging arrangements for our Canadian dollar expenditures, and, consequently, foreign currency fluctuations may adversely affect our earnings; however, in the future, we may engage in exchange rate hedging activities in an effort to mitigate the impact of exchange rate fluctuations. Any hedging technique we implement may fail to be effective. If our hedging activities are not effective, changes in currency exchange rates may have a more significant impact on the market price of our common shares.

We have historically financed our cash needs through a combination of sources including debt financing, which arrangements can contain operating and financial covenants that may restrict our business and financing activities.

We have historically financed our cash needs through a combination of collaboration agreements, equity and debt financings. Debt financings may require a security interest in substantially all of our assets and may also restrict our ability, among other things, to:

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While we are not currently a party to any material debt financing arrangements, we may consider such debt financing arrangements in the future. Any such debt financing we seek in the future may restrict our ability to finance our operations, engage in business activities or expand or fully pursue our business strategies.

Risks Related to Our Business and Industry

We and our collaborators face substantial competition in the markets for our product candidates, which may result in others discovering, developing or commercializing products before us or doing so more successfully than we or our collaborators do.

The biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries are characterized by rapidly advancing technologies, intense competition and a strong emphasis on proprietary products. We face potential competition in drug discovery and product development from many different approaches and sources, including major pharmaceutical, specialty pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, academic institutions, governmental agencies, as well as public and private research institutions. Any product candidates that we or our collaborators successfully develop and commercialize will compete with existing products and any new products that may become available in the future.

The key competitive factors affecting the success of all of our product candidates, if approved, are likely to be their efficacy, safety and/or tolerability, convenience and ease of administration, price, the potential advantages of alternative products, the level of generic competition, and the availability of coverage and adequate reimbursement from government and other third-party payers.

Many of the companies against which we are competing or against which we may compete in the future have significantly greater financial resources and expertise in research and development, manufacturing, pre-clinical testing, conducting clinical trials, obtaining regulatory approvals and marketing approved products than we, or our collaborators, do. Mergers and acquisitions in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries may result in even more resources being concentrated among a smaller number of our competitors. Smaller or early-stage companies may also prove to be significant competitors, particularly through collaboration arrangements with large and established companies.

Our commercial opportunities could be reduced or eliminated if our competitors develop and commercialize products or therapies that are safer, more effective, have fewer or less severe side effects, are more convenient or are less expensive than any products that we may develop. Our competitors also may obtain FDA, EMA, Health Canada or other regulatory approval for their products more rapidly than we may obtain approval for ours, which could result in our competitors establishing a strong market position before we are able to enter the market. In addition, our ability to compete may be affected by decisions made by insurers or other third-party payers.

To the extent that we are unable to compete effectively against one or more of our competitors in these areas, our business will not grow and our financial condition, results of operations and the market price of our common shares may suffer.

For example, if more than one of our proprietary or partnered products were approved for the treatment of epilepsy, we anticipate that they could potentially compete with one another and other anti-seizure medications, or ASMs. Currently prescribed ASMs, among others, include phenytoin, levetiracetam, brivaracetam, carbamazepine, cenobamate, clobazam, lamotrigine, valproate, oxcarbazepine, topiramate, lacosamide, ethosuximide, perampanel, cannabidiol, eslicarbazepine acetate, gabapentin and fenfluramine. The FDA has not yet approved any drug products specifically for KCNQ2 developmental and epileptic encephalopathy (otherwise known as KCNQ2-DEE or EIEE7) or for SCN8A developmental and epileptic encephalopathy (otherwise known as SCN8A-DEE or EIEE13). There are other ASMs in clinical development that could potentially compete with our products, including products in development from Angelini Pharma, Biohaven Pharmaceutical Holding Company, Ltd, Eliem Therapeutics, Inc., Eisai Co., Ltd., Epygenix Therapeutics, Inc., Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Jazz Pharmaceuticals plc, Longboard Pharmaceuticals Inc., Marinus Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Neurocrine Biosciences, Praxis Precision Medicines, Inc., QurAlis Corporation, SK Life Science Inc., Stoke Therapeutics Inc., Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Ltd., Taysha Gene Therapies, Inc., UCB, Inc., and Zogenix Inc.

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We have no marketed proprietary products and have not yet completed clinical development beyond Phase 2 clinical trials, which makes it difficult to assess our ability to develop our future product candidates and commercialize any resulting products independently.

As a company, we have no previous experience in completing a Phase 3 clinical trial or in completing clinical trials in pediatric indications, and related regulatory requirements or the commercialization of products. We have not yet demonstrated our ability to independently and repeatedly conduct clinical development after Phase 2, conduct a pivotal clinical trial, obtain regulatory approval, manufacture drug product on a commercial scale or arrange for a third party to do so on our behalf, and commercialize therapeutic products. We will need to develop such abilities if we are to execute on our business strategy to develop and independently commercialize product candidates. To execute on our business plan for the development of independent programs, we will need to successfully:

If we are unsuccessful in accomplishing these objectives, we will not be able to develop and commercialize any future product candidates independently and could fail to realize the potential advantages of doing so.

If we are not successful in discovering, acquiring or in-licensing product candidates in addition to XEN496, and XEN1101, our ability to expand our business and achieve our strategic objectives may be impaired.

We have built a product development pipeline by identifying product candidates either from our internal research efforts or through acquiring or in-licensing other product candidates or technologies. To date, our internal discovery efforts have yielded multiple development candidates, including XEN901, which we licensed to Neurocrine Biosciences and is now known as NBI-921352, and XEN402, which we sold to Flexion Therapeutics, Inc., or Flexion, acquired by Pacira BioSciences, Inc. in November 2021, or Pacira BioSciences, to use in its product candidate FX301, now known as PCRX301. Both our internal discovery efforts and our assessment of potential acquisition or in-licensing opportunities require substantial technical, financial and human resources, regardless of whether we identify any viable product candidates.

If we are unable to identify additional product candidates suitable for clinical development and commercialization either from our internal research efforts or through acquiring or in-licensing other product candidates or technologies, we may not be able to obtain product revenue in future periods, which likely would result in significant harm to our financial position and adversely impact the market price of our common shares.

If we fail to attract and retain senior management and key personnel, we may be unable to successfully develop our product candidates, perform our obligations under our collaboration agreements, conduct our clinical trials and commercialize our product candidates.

Our success depends in part on our continued ability to attract, retain and motivate highly qualified management, clinical and scientific personnel.

We could experience difficulties attracting and retaining qualified employees as competition for qualified personnel in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical field is intense. We are highly dependent upon our senior management, particularly Mr. Ian Mortimer, our President and Chief Executive Officer, as well as other employees. The loss of services of one or more of our members of senior management could materially delay or even prevent the successful development of our product candidates.

In addition, we will need to hire additional personnel as we expand our clinical development activities and develop commercial capabilities, including a sales infrastructure to support our independent commercialization efforts. We may not be able to attract and retain personnel on acceptable terms given the competition among numerous pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies for individuals with similar skill sets. The inability to recruit or loss of the services of any executive or key employee may impede the progress of our research, development and commercialization objectives.

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Our employees, collaborators and other personnel may engage in misconduct or other improper activities, including non-compliance with regulatory standards and requirements and insider trading.

We are exposed to the risk of fraud or other misconduct by our employees, collaborators, vendors, principal investigators, consultants and commercial partners. Misconduct by these parties could include intentional failures to comply with the regulations of the FDA, EMA, Health Canada and other regulators, provide accurate information to the FDA, EMA, Health Canada and other regulators, comply with data privacy, data protection and security and healthcare fraud and abuse laws and regulations in the U.S. and abroad, report financial information or data accurately or disclose unauthorized activities to us. In particular, sales, marketing and business arrangements in the healthcare industry are subject to extensive laws and regulations intended to prevent fraud, misconduct, kickbacks, self-dealing and other abusive practices. Additionally, laws regarding data privacy and security, including the federal Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996, or HIPAA, as amended by the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act of 2009, or HITECH, the General Data Protection Regulation (EU) 2016/679, or GDPR, and the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act, or PIPEDA, as well as comparable laws in other jurisdictions, impose obligations with respect to safeguarding the privacy, use, security, protection and transmission of individually identifiable health information or other personal information such as genetic material or information we have obtained through our direct-to-patient web-based recruitment approach for identifying patients with rare or extreme phenotypes or patients identified for clinical trials.

Various laws and regulations may restrict or prohibit a wide range of pricing, discounting, marketing and promotion, sales commission, customer incentive programs and other business arrangements. Any misconduct could also involve the improper use of information obtained in the course of clinical studies, which could result in regulatory sanctions and cause serious harm to our reputation. We have adopted a code of conduct applicable to all of our employees, officers, directors, agents and representatives, including consultants, but it is not always possible to identify and deter misconduct, and the precautions we take to detect and prevent misconduct may not be effective in controlling unknown or unmanaged risks or losses or in protecting us from governmental investigations or other actions or claims, demands, or lawsuits stemming from an actual or alleged failure to comply with these laws and regulations. If any such actions are instituted against us, and we are not successful in defending ourselves, achieving a favorable settlement or otherwise asserting our rights, those actions could have a significant impact on our business, including the imposition of significant fines or other sanctions, exclusion from participation in government healthcare programs, or the curtailment or restructuring of our operations. Additionally, defending against any such actions can be costly, time-consuming and may require significant financial and personnel resources. Therefore, even if we are successful in defending against any such actions that may be brought against us, our business may be impaired.

We may encounter difficulties in managing our growth, including headcount, and expanding our operations successfully.

Our business strategy involves continued development and, where development is successful, commercialization of select product candidates. In order to execute on this strategy, we will need to build out a regulatory, sales, manufacturing, supply chain and marketing infrastructure and expand our development capabilities or contract with third parties to provide these capabilities and infrastructure for us. To achieve this, we will need to identify, hire and integrate personnel who have not worked together as a group previously and compensate our employees on adequate terms in an increasingly competitive, inflationary market. As our operations expand, we expect that we will need to manage additional relationships with various strategic collaborators, suppliers and other third parties.

Future growth will impose significant added responsibilities on members of management including the need to identify, recruit, maintain, motivate and integrate additional employees. Also, our management may need to divert a disproportionate amount of its attention away from our day-to-day activities and devote a substantial amount of time to managing these growth activities.

We may not be able to effectively manage the expansion of our operations, which may result in weaknesses in our business, give rise to operational errors, loss of business opportunities, loss of employees and reduced productivity amongst remaining employees. Our expected growth could require significant capital expenditures and may divert financial resources from other projects, such as the development of existing and additional product candidates. If we are unable to effectively manage our growth, our expenses may increase more than expected, our ability to generate and grow revenue could be reduced, and we may not be able to implement our business strategy. Our future financial performance and our ability to commercialize product candidates and compete effectively will depend, in part, on our ability to effectively manage any future growth.

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Our business and operations could suffer in the event of an information security incident such as a cybersecurity breach, system failure, or other compromise of our systems or those of a contractor or vendor.

To meet business objectives, we rely on both internal information technology systems and networks, and those of third parties and their vendors and contractors, to process and store sensitive data, including confidential research, business plans, financial information, intellectual property, and personal data that may be subject to legal protection. Computer system, network or telecommunications failures due to events such as damage or disrupted operations from ransomware or other malware, unauthorized access, public health pandemics or epidemics (including, for example, the COVID-19 pandemic), terrorism, war, or natural disasters could interrupt our internal or partner operations. We are increasingly dependent upon our technology systems to operate our business with a growing remote workforce and our ability to effectively manage our business depends on the security, reliability and adequacy of our or our third-party contractors’ or vendors’ technology systems and data. A breakdown, invasion, corruption, destruction, breach or other compromise of our or our third-party contractors’ or vendors’ technology systems, including cloud technologies, and/or unauthorized access to, or the loss, destruction, alteration, prevention of access to, disclosure, or dissemination of, or damage or unauthorized access to, our data (including trade secrets or other confidential information, intellectual property, proprietary business information, and personal information) or data that is processed or maintained on our behalf, and cyberattacks such as phishing, social engineering, ransomware and other malware attacks could subject us to liability and increased costs or negatively impact the operation of our business. In addition, the loss of or alteration or other damage to pre-clinical trial data, data from completed or ongoing clinical trials for our product candidates or other confidential information could result in delays in our regulatory filings and development efforts, significantly increase our costs and result in other adverse impacts to our business. Any disruption or cybersecurity breach or other security incident that results in the loss, destruction, alteration, prevention of access to, disclosure, or dissemination of, or damage or unauthorized access to, our data (including trade secrets or other confidential information, intellectual property, proprietary business information, and personal information) or data that is processed or maintained on our behalf, including inappropriate disclosure, use or other processing of confidential, personal or proprietary information, or the perception or belief that any such incident has occurred, could cause us to be the subject of claims, demands, lawsuits, and other proceedings by private parties or governmental authorities, and to incur liability and other remediation costs, could harm our reputation and market position, and could result in delays in the development of our product candidates.

To date, we have not experienced any material impact to our business, financial position or operations resulting from cyberattacks or other information security incidents such as phishing, social engineering, ransomware or malware attacks; however, because of the frequently changing attack techniques, along with the increased volume and sophistication of such attacks, our business, financial position or operations could be adversely impacted in the future. This impact could result in reputational, competitive, operational or other business harm as well as financial costs and private claims, demands or litigation and regulatory action. Moreover, the prevalent use of mobile devices that access confidential information and ability to work remotely increases the risk of data security breaches, which could lead to the loss of confidential information, trade secrets or other intellectual property. These risks may be heightened due to the increasing number of our and our vendors’ and contractors’ personnel working remotely. As cyber threats continue to evolve, we may be required to expend significant additional resources to continue to modify or enhance our protective measures or to investigate and remediate any information security vulnerabilities. While we have implemented security measures and, to date, have not detected a cybersecurity breach of our systems nor experienced a material system failure, our computer systems and the external systems and services used by our third-party contract manufacturers, or CMOs, third-party contract research organizations, or CROs, or other contractors, vendors, consultants, directors and partners remain potentially vulnerable to these events.

A variety of risks associated with international operations could materially adversely affect our business.

As we engage in significant cross-border and international activities, we will be subject to risks related to international operations, including:

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If any of these issues were to occur, our business could be materially harmed.

Health pandemics or epidemics, including the COVID-19 pandemic and other public health crises may materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

The COVID-19 pandemic and other public health crises may materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations in several ways. For example, because our supply chain for raw materials, drug substance and drug product is worldwide, it could be subject to significant disruptions. There may be related restrictions on the export, import or shipment of raw materials, drug substance or drug product that could materially delay our business or clinical trials.

Certain of our research and development efforts are also conducted globally, including our ongoing Phase 3 XEN496 (EPIK) clinical trial. For example, we previously experienced a significant reduction in the rate of new patient enrollment in our Phase 2b XEN1101 (X-TOLE) clinical trial due to the COVID-19 pandemic. While we were able to complete recruitment for this trial, we cannot be certain that the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic or related variants will not negatively impact ongoing or future clinical trials. Our EPIK trial is dependent upon our ability to initiate clinical sites and enroll patients despite the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

We continue to provide many of our employees the option to work from home and implemented a halt of non-essential business travel since March 2020. With the number of COVID-19 variants on the rise, including the more contagious Omicron variant, there is a risk that COVID-19 infections could affect a sizable number of employees at the same time, which could in turn significantly affect our operations. Additionally, if any of our critical vendors are impacted, our business could be affected if we become unable to timely procure essential equipment, clinical trial drug product, supplies or services.

There continues to be uncertainty around the ultimate impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on public health, business operations and the overall economy; therefore, the negative impact on our financial position, operating results and liquidity cannot be reasonably estimated at this time, but the impact may be material.

U.S. holders of our common shares may suffer adverse tax consequences if we are characterized as a passive foreign investment company.

Generally, for any taxable year in which 75% or more of our gross income is passive income, or at least 50% of the average quarterly value of our assets (which may be determined in part by the market value of our common shares, which is subject to change) are held for the production of, or produce, passive income, we would be characterized as a passive foreign investment company, or PFIC, for U.S. federal income tax purposes. Based on the price of our common shares and the composition of our gross income and gross assets, we do not believe we were a PFIC for the taxable years ended December 31, 2021 and 2020 but we could be a PFIC in subsequent years. Our status as a PFIC is a fact-intensive determination made on an annual basis, and we cannot provide any assurance regarding our PFIC status for the current taxable year or future taxable years.

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If we are a PFIC for any year, U.S. holders of our common shares may suffer adverse tax consequences. Gains realized by non-corporate U.S. holders on the sale of our common shares would be taxed as ordinary income, rather than as capital gain, and the preferential tax rate applicable to dividends received on our common shares would be lost. Interest charges would also be added to taxes on gains and dividends realized by all U.S. holders. U.S. holders should consult their own tax advisors with respect to their particular circumstances.

A U.S. holder may avoid these adverse tax consequences by timely making a qualified electing fund election. For each year that we would meet the PFIC gross income or asset test, an electing U.S. holder would be required to include in gross income its pro rata share of our net ordinary income and net capital gains, if any. A U.S. holder may make a qualified electing fund election only if we commit to provide U.S. holders with their pro rata share of our net ordinary income and net capital gains. We will provide, upon request, our U.S. holders with the information that is necessary in order for them to make a qualified electing fund election and to report their common shares of ordinary earnings and net capital gains for each year we believe we were a PFIC. U.S. holders should consult their own tax advisors with respect to making this election and the related reporting requirements.

A U.S. holder may also mitigate the adverse tax consequences by timely making a mark-to-market election. Generally, for each year that we meet the PFIC gross income or asset test, an electing U.S. holder would include in gross income the increase in the value of its common shares during each of its taxable years and deduct from gross income the decrease in the value of such shares during each of its taxable years. A mark-to-market election may be made and maintained only if our common shares are regularly traded on a qualified exchange, including the Nasdaq Global Market, or Nasdaq. Whether our common shares are regularly traded on a qualified exchange is an annual determination based on facts that, in part, are beyond our control. Accordingly, a U.S. holder might not be eligible to make a mark-to-market election to mitigate the adverse tax consequences if we are characterized as a PFIC. U.S. holders should consult their own tax advisors with respect to the possibility of making this election.

In addition, if we are or become a PFIC (or our PFIC status is uncertain), it may deter certain U.S. investors from purchasing our common shares, which could have an adverse impact on the market price of our common shares.

We may become subject to income tax in jurisdictions in which we are organized or operate, which would reduce our future earnings.

There is a risk that we may become subject to income tax in jurisdictions outside of Canada and the United States, if under the laws of any such jurisdiction, we are considered to be carrying on a trade or business there or earn income that is considered to be sourced there and we do not qualify for an exemption. In jurisdictions where we do not believe we are subject to tax, we can provide no certainty that tax authorities in those jurisdictions will not subject one or more tax years to examination. Tax examinations are often complex as tax authorities may disagree with the treatment of items reported by us, the result of which could have a material adverse effect on our operating results and financial condition.

Acquisitions, joint ventures or other strategic transactions could disrupt our business, cause dilution to our shareholders and otherwise harm our business.

We actively evaluate various strategic transactions on an ongoing basis, including the acquisition of other businesses, products or technologies as well as pursuing strategic alliances, joint ventures, licensing transactions or investments in complementary businesses. Any of these transactions could be material to our financial condition and operating results and expose us to many risks, including:

Foreign acquisitions involve unique risks in addition to those mentioned above, including those related to integration of operations across different cultures and languages, currency risks and the particular economic, political and regulatory risks associated with specific countries.

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Also, the anticipated benefit of any strategic alliance, joint venture or acquisition may not materialize. Future acquisitions or dispositions could result in potentially dilutive issuances of our equity securities, the incurrence of debt, contingent liabilities or amortization expenses or write-offs of goodwill, any of which could harm our financial condition. We cannot predict the number, timing or size of future joint ventures or acquisitions, or the effect that any such transactions might have on our operating results.

If product liability lawsuits are brought against us, we may incur substantial liabilities and may be required to limit commercialization of our current and any future products.

We face an inherent risk of product liability as a result of the clinical testing of our product candidates, and we will face an even greater risk if we commercialize any product candidates. For example, we may be sued if any of our product candidates, including any that are developed in combination with other therapies, allegedly causes injury or is found to be otherwise unsuitable during product testing, manufacturing, marketing or sale. Any such product liability claims may include allegations of defects in manufacturing, defects in design, a failure to warn of dangers inherent in the product, negligence, strict liability and a breach of warranties. Claims could also be asserted under state or provincial consumer protection acts. If we cannot successfully defend ourselves against product liability claims, we may incur substantial liabilities or be required to limit commercialization of our product candidates. Even successful defense would require significant financial and management resources. There is also risk that third parties we have agreed to indemnify could incur liability. Regardless of the merits or eventual outcome, liability claims may result in:

We currently carry product liability insurance with amounts of coverage that we believe are appropriate relative to our current clinical programs; however, we may not be able to maintain insurance coverage at a reasonable cost or in sufficient amounts to protect us against losses due to liability. If and when we obtain marketing approval for product candidates, we intend to expand our insurance coverage to include the sale of commercial products; however, we may then be unable to obtain product liability insurance on commercially reasonable terms or in adequate amounts. On occasion, large judgments have been awarded in class action lawsuits based on drugs or medical treatments that had unanticipated adverse effects. A successful product liability claim or series of claims brought against us could cause the market price of our common shares to decline and, if judgments exceed our insurance coverage, could adversely affect our future results of operations and business.

Patients with certain of the diseases, or disorders, targeted by our product candidates are often already in severe and advanced stages of disease and have both known and unknown significant pre-existing and potentially life-threatening conditions. During the course of treatment, patients may suffer adverse events, including death, for reasons that may be related to our product candidates. Such events could subject us to costly litigation, require us to pay substantial amounts of money to injured patients, delay, negatively impact or end our opportunity to receive or maintain regulatory approval to market those product candidates, or require us to suspend or abandon our commercialization efforts. Even in a circumstance in which we do not believe that an adverse event is related to our products, the investigation into the circumstance may be time-consuming or inconclusive. These investigations may interrupt our sales efforts, delay our regulatory approval process in other countries, or impact and limit the type of regulatory approvals our product candidates receive or maintain. As a result of these factors, a product liability claim, even if successfully defended, could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition or results of operations.

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Our current and future operations in the U.S. and elsewhere will be subject, directly or indirectly, to applicable federal and state anti-kickback, fraud and abuse, false claims, transparency, health information privacy and security, and other healthcare laws and regulations, which could expose us to criminal sanctions, civil penalties, contractual damages, reputational harm, administrative burdens, and diminished profits and future earnings.

Healthcare providers, physicians and third-party payers in the U.S. and elsewhere play a primary role in the recommendation and prescription of any product candidates for which we obtain marketing approval. Our current arrangements with health care providers and our future arrangements with third-party payers and customers may expose us to broadly applicable fraud and abuse and other healthcare laws and regulations, including, without limitation, the federal Anti-Kickback Statute and the federal False Claims Act and similar laws in foreign jurisdictions in which we conduct business, that may constrain the business or financial arrangements and relationships through which we market, sell and distribute any products for which we obtain marketing approval. In addition, we may be subject to transparency laws and patient privacy regulation by the federal government and by the U.S. states and foreign jurisdictions in which we conduct our business. The applicable federal, state and foreign healthcare laws and regulations that may affect our ability to operate include the following:

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Efforts to ensure that our business arrangements with third parties will comply with applicable healthcare and privacy and data protection laws and regulations may involve substantial costs and may require us to undertake or implement additional policies or measures. We may face claims and proceedings by private parties, and claims, investigations and other proceedings by governmental authorities, relating to allegations that our business practices do not comply with current or future statutes, regulations or case law involving applicable fraud and abuse or other healthcare laws and regulations, and it is possible that courts or governmental authorities may conclude that we have not complied with them, or that we may find it necessary or appropriate to settle any such claims or other proceedings. If our operations are found to be in violation of any of these laws or any other governmental regulations that may apply to us, we may be subject to significant civil, criminal and administrative penalties, including, without limitation, damages, fines, disgorgement, imprisonment, exclusion from participation in government healthcare programs, such as Medicare and Medicaid, integrity oversight and reporting obligations, and the curtailment or restructuring of our operations, which could have a material adverse effect on our business. If any of the physicians or other providers or entities with whom we expect to do business, including our collaborators, is found not to be in compliance with applicable laws, it may be subject to criminal, civil or administrative sanctions, including exclusions from participation in government healthcare programs, which could also materially affect our business. Further, defending against any such actions can be costly, time-consuming and may require significant financial and personnel resources. Therefore, even if we are successful in defending against any such actions that may be brought against us, our business may be impaired.

If we fail to comply with environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, we could become subject to fines or penalties or incur costs that could have a material adverse effect on the success of our business.

Our research and development activities involve the controlled use of potentially harmful biological materials as well as hazardous materials, chemicals, and various radioactive compounds typically employed in molecular and cellular biology. For example, we routinely use cells in culture and we employ small amounts of radioisotopes. We cannot completely eliminate the risk of accidental contamination or injury from the use, storage, handling, or disposal of these materials through our maintenance of up-to-date licensing and training programs. In the event of contamination or injury, we could be held liable for damages that result, and any liability could exceed our resources. We currently carry insurance covering certain claims arising from our use of these materials. However, if we are unable to maintain our insurance coverage at a reasonable cost and with adequate coverage, our insurance may not cover any liability that may arise. We are subject to Canadian federal, provincial, and local laws and regulations and may be subject to U.S. and/or foreign, laws and regulations governing the use, storage, handling, and disposal of these materials and specified waste products. Complying with regulations regarding the use of these materials could be costly, and if we fail to comply with these regulations, it could have a material adverse effect on our operations and profitability.

We or the third parties upon whom we depend may be adversely affected by earthquakes or other natural disasters and our business continuity and disaster recovery plans may not adequately protect us from serious disaster.

Our headquarters are located in Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada. We are vulnerable to natural disasters such as earthquakes that could disrupt our operations. If a natural disaster, power outage, fire or other event occurred that prevented us from using all or a significant portion of our headquarters, that damaged critical infrastructure, such as the manufacturing facilities of our CMOs, or that otherwise disrupted operations, it may be difficult or, in certain cases, impossible for us to continue our business for a substantial period of time. Although we carry insurance for earthquakes and other natural disasters, we may not carry sufficient business interruption insurance to compensate us for all losses that may occur. The disaster recovery and business continuity plans we have in place may not be adequate in the event of a serious disaster or similar event. We may incur substantial expenses as a result of a natural disaster or earthquake, which could have a material adverse effect on our business. In addition, we may lose samples or other valuable data. The occurrence of any of the foregoing could have a material adverse effect on our business.

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Risks Related to Development, Clinical Testing and Regulatory Approval of Our Product Candidates

The regulatory approval processes of the FDA, EMA, Health Canada and regulators in other jurisdictions are lengthy, time-consuming and inherently unpredictable. If we, or our collaborators, are unable to obtain regulatory approval for our product candidates in a timely manner, or at all, our business will be substantially harmed.

The regulatory approval process is expensive and the time required to obtain approval from the FDA, EMA, Health Canada or other regulatory authorities in other jurisdictions to sell any product is uncertain and may take years. Whether regulatory approval will be granted is unpredictable and depends upon numerous factors, including the substantial discretion of the regulatory authorities. Approval policies, regulations, or the type and amount of pre-clinical and clinical data necessary to gain approval may change during the course of a product candidate’s clinical development and may vary among jurisdictions. Moreover, pre-clinical and clinical data are often susceptible to varying interpretations and analyses, and even if the pre-clinical studies show promising results and clinical trials are successfully completed, we cannot guarantee that the FDA, EMA, Health Canada or other regulatory authorities in other jurisdictions will interpret the results as we do, and more trials, manufacturing-related studies or non-clinical studies could be required before we submit our product candidates for approval. Many companies that have believed their product candidates performed satisfactorily in pre-clinical studies and clinical trials have nonetheless failed to obtain marketing approval of their products. To the extent that the results of our studies and trials are not satisfactory to the FDA, EMA, Health Canada or other regulatory authorities in other jurisdictions for support of a marketing application, approval of our product candidates may be significantly delayed, or we may be required to expend significant additional resources, which may not be available to us, to conduct additional trials in support of potential approval of our product candidates. It is also possible that none of our existing product candidates or any of our future product candidates will ever obtain regulatory approval, even if we expend substantial time and resources seeking such approval.

Our product candidates could fail to receive regulatory approval for many reasons, including the following:

Even if we, or our collaborators, obtain approval for a particular product, regulatory authorities may grant approval contingent on the performance of costly post-approval commitments including clinical trials, or may approve a product with a label that does not include the labeling claims necessary or desirable for the successful commercialization of that product.

In addition, because there may be approved treatments for some of the diseases or disorders for which we may seek approval, in order to receive regulatory approval, we may need to demonstrate in clinical trials that the product candidates we develop to treat those diseases or disorders are not only safe and effective, but may need to be compared to existing products, which may make it more difficult for our product candidates to receive regulatory approval or adequate reimbursement.

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Clinical drug development involves a lengthy and expensive process with uncertain timelines and uncertain outcomes. If clinical trials are prolonged, delayed, not completed, unsuccessful or inconclusive, we could experience material harm to our business and the market price of our common shares. In addition, we, or our collaborators, may be unable to commercialize our product candidates on a timely basis or at all.

Clinical testing of product candidates is expensive and, depending on the stage of development, can take a substantial period of time to complete. Clinical trial outcomes are inherently uncertain, and failure can occur at any time during the clinical development process and can have a material impact on our business and the market price of our common shares.

Clinical trials can be halted or delayed for a variety of reasons, including those related to:

These risks and uncertainties could impact any of our or our collaborators’ clinical programs and any of the clinical, regulatory or operational events described above could change our or our collaborators’ planned clinical and regulatory activities. For example, we previously experienced a significant reduction in the rate of new patient enrollment in our X-TOLE trial due to the COVID-19 pandemic. While we were able to complete recruitment for this trial, we cannot be certain that the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic or related variants will not negatively impact other trials in the future. In addition, due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, we have experienced an impact on the initiation of clinical sites in our EPIK trial. COVID-19 may continue to impact the enrollment of patients in our XEN496 EPIK clinical trial.

The results of any Phase 3 or other pivotal clinical trial, including without limitation our EPIK trial, may not be adequate to support marketing approval. These clinical trials are lengthy and, with respect to non-orphan indications, usually involve many hundreds to thousands of patients. With respect to orphan indications like KCNQ2-DEE or SCN8A-DEE, clinical trials can also be lengthy due to the challenge of identifying patients. Even if patients are successfully identified, they may fail screening criteria including baseline seizure burden and, as a result, not be enrolled in the trial. Any challenges associated with identifying, screening and/or enrolling patients in our trials may extend the time needed to complete our EPIK trial or other clinical trials or require additional sites to be initiated in order to achieve target enrollment numbers and to complete our clinical trials, which may increase the cost of our operations and/or delay the timing of our regulatory approval. In addition, if the FDA, EMA, Health Canada or another regulator disagrees with our or our collaborators’ choice of the key testing criterion, or primary endpoint, the results for the primary endpoint are not robust or significant relative to the control group of patients not receiving the experimental therapy, or our statistical analysis is inconclusive, such regulator may refuse to approve our product candidate in the region in which it has jurisdiction. The FDA, EMA, Health Canada or other regulators also may require additional clinical trials as a condition for approving any of these product candidates.

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We or our collaborators could also encounter delays if a clinical trial is suspended or terminated by us, by our collaborators, by the IRBs of the institutions in which such trial is being conducted, by any Data Safety Monitoring Board for such trial, or by the FDA, EMA, Health Canada or other regulatory authorities. Such authorities may impose such a suspension or termination due to a number of factors, including failure to conduct the clinical trial in accordance with regulatory requirements or our clinical protocols, inspection of the clinical trial operations or trial site by the FDA, EMA, Health Canada or other regulatory authorities resulting in the imposition of a clinical hold, product candidate manufacturing problems, unforeseen safety issues or adverse side effects, failure to demonstrate a benefit from using a drug, changes in governmental regulations or administrative actions or lack of adequate funding to continue the clinical trial. In addition, delays can occur due to safety concerns arising from trials or other clinical data regarding another company’s product candidate in the same compound class as one of ours.

Additionally, changes in applicable regulatory requirements and guidance may occur and we may need to amend clinical trial protocols to reflect these changes or to include additional objectives that could yield important scientific information critical to our overall development strategy. The protocol amendment process often requires review and approval by several review bodies, including regulatory agencies and scientific, regulatory and ethics boards and IRBs which may affect timely completion of a clinical trial. Further, these protocol amendments may not be accepted by the review bodies in the form submitted, or at all, which may impact costs, timing or successful completion of a clinical trial.

We may also be required to develop and implement additional clinical trial policies and procedures designed to support remote clinical trial activities which have and are expected to continue to increase the cost and complexity of our clinical trials. Since March 2020, the FDA, EMA and Health Canada have issued various guidance documents and related guidance updates describing a number of considerations for sponsors conducting clinical trials during the COVID-19 pandemic. FDA has also issued COVID-19 related guidance addressing resuming normal drug and biologics manufacturing operations; manufacturing, supply chain, and inspections; and statistical considerations for clinical trials during the COVID-19 public health emergency, among others. In view of the spread of the COVID-19 variants, FDA and other regulatory authorities may issue additional guidance and policies that may materially impact our business and clinical development timelines. Changes to existing policies and regulations can increase our compliance costs or delay our clinical plans.

If we or our collaborators experience delays in the completion of, or termination of, any clinical trial of one of our product candidates, the commercial prospects of the product candidate may be harmed, the period during which we may have the exclusive right to commercialize our products under patent protection could be shortened, and our or our collaborators’ ability to commence product sales and generate product revenue from the product will be delayed. In addition, any delays in completing our clinical trials will increase our costs and slow down our product candidate development and approval process. Any of these occurrences may harm our business, financial condition and prospects significantly. In addition, many of the factors that cause or lead to a delay in the commencement or completion of clinical trials may also ultimately lead to the denial of regulatory approval of our or our collaborators’ product candidates.

XEN496 targets an ultra-orphan indication of KCNQ2-DEE and the FDA has indicated that a single, small pivotal trial may be sufficient to demonstrate effectiveness and safety in KCNQ2-DEE provided that no new or unexpected safety issues arise during drug development. However, other regulatory authorities may require additional data. Further, even though we believe the safety and efficacy profile of ezogabine, the active ingredient in XEN496, in pediatric patients with KCNQ2-DEE generated to date by others appears promising based on published clinical case reports, we do not yet know if our pediatric-specific formulation of XEN496 will have the same or similar safety, pharmacokinetic and/or efficacy profile in pediatric patients with KCNQ2-DEE as the original formulation of ezogabine. If we are unable to replicate the published clinical case reports, due to the new formulation or any other factors, the clinical development of XEN496 may not be successful and the FDA or other regulatory authorities may require additional data in more patients or we may not be able to generate sufficient data for approval in this patient population.

Clinical trials may fail to demonstrate adequately the safety and efficacy of our or our collaborators’ product candidates, at any stage of clinical development. Terminating the development of any of our or our collaborators’ product candidates could materially harm our business and the market price of our common shares.

Our and our collaborators’ clinical product candidates, which include XEN1101, XEN496, NBI-921352 (being developed by our collaborator Neurocrine Biosciences), and PCRX301 (being developed by Pacira BioSciences), along with product candidates we expect to enter clinical development which include our pre-clinical compounds, are in varying stages of development and will require substantial clinical development, testing and regulatory approval prior to commercialization.

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Before obtaining regulatory approvals for the commercial sale of our product candidates, we or our collaborators must demonstrate through lengthy, complex and expensive pre-clinical testing and clinical trials that each product candidate is both safe and effective for use in each target indication. Failure can occur at any time during the clinical trial process. Clinical trials often fail to demonstrate safety and efficacy of the product candidate studied for the target indication. Most product candidates that commence clinical trials are never approved as products. A number of companies in the biopharmaceutical industry have suffered significant setbacks in advanced clinical trials due to lack of efficacy or adverse safety profiles, notwithstanding promising results in earlier trials. In addition to the safety and efficacy trials of any product candidate, clinical trial failures may result from a multitude of factors including flaws in trial design, dose selection, statistical analysis plan, placebo effect, patient enrollment criteria, patient compliance and trial execution. Data obtained from trials and studies are susceptible to varying interpretations, and regulators may not interpret our data as favorably as we do, which may delay, limit or prevent regulatory approval. Failure of a clinical trial due to any of these reasons could materially harm our business and the market price of our common shares.

In the case of some of our and our collaborators’ product candidates, we and our collaborators are seeking to develop treatments for certain diseases or disorders for which there is relatively limited clinical experience, and clinical trials may use novel endpoints and measurement methodologies or subjective patient feedback, which adds a layer of complexity to these clinical trials and may delay regulatory approval. Negative or inconclusive results from our or our collaborators’ clinical trials could lead to a decision or requirement to conduct additional pre-clinical testing or clinical trials or result in a decision to terminate the continued development of a product candidate. For example, on October 4, 2021 we released topline data from our X-TOLE Phase 2b clinical trial of XEN1101 in adult patients with focal epilepsy. Even though the topline data from our X-TOLE Phase 2b clinical trial are positive, there can be no assurance that we will be able to successfully advance development of this product candidate into later stage clinical trials or obtain regulatory approval of XEN1101. Any of the foregoing outcomes would materially and adversely impact our business, product candidate pipeline and future prospects.

If our or our collaborators’ product candidates are not shown to be both safe and effective in clinical trials, such product candidates will be unable to obtain regulatory approval or be successfully commercialized. In addition, our or our collaborators’ failure to demonstrate positive results in clinical trials in any indication for which we or our collaborators are developing clinical product candidates could adversely affect development efforts in other indications. In such case, we would need to develop other compounds and conduct associated pre-clinical testing and clinical trials, as well as potentially seek additional financing, all of which would have a material adverse effect on our business, growth prospects, operating results, financial condition and results of operations.

We or our collaborators may find it difficult to enroll patients in our clinical studies, including for ultra-orphan, orphan or niche indications, which could delay or prevent clinical studies of our product candidates.

We or our collaborators may not be able to identify, recruit and enroll a sufficient number of patients, or those with required or desired characteristics to achieve diversity in a study, to complete clinical studies in a timely manner, or at all. Patient enrollment for clinical trials for ultra-orphan, orphan and niche indications and for more prevalent conditions is affected by factors including:

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The limited patient populations in ultra-orphan, orphan and niche indications, such as KCNQ2-DEE, SCN8A-DEE and other early infantile epileptic encephalopathies, present significant recruitment challenges for clinical trials and a full understanding of the size of these populations is still relatively unknown. Many of these patients may not be suitable or available to participate in our or our collaborators’ clinical trials. This means that we or our collaborators will generally have to run multi-site and potentially multi-national trials, which can be expensive and require close coordination and supervision. If we or our collaborators’ experience delays in completing our clinical trials, such delays could result in increased costs, delays in advancing our product development, delays in testing the effectiveness of our product candidates or termination of the clinical studies altogether. Even if we or our collaborators’ are successful in receiving regulatory approval, the limited patient populations in ultra-orphan, orphan and niche indications may impact the successful commercialization of our or our collaborators’ product candidates and reimbursement rates, which could impact revenue and our ability to achieve profitability.

If we fail to obtain or maintain orphan drug designation or other regulatory exclusivity for some of our product candidates, our competitive position would be harmed.

Although we have pending provisional and non-provisional patent applications related to XEN496, this product candidate is not currently covered by any issued patents and we may have to rely solely on orphan drug designation to gain market exclusivity for this product candidate. Currently, this designation provides market exclusivity in the U.S. and the EU for seven years and ten years, respectively, if a product is the first such product approved for such orphan indication. In the EU, for orphan medicines, a valid and completed Pediatric Investigation Plan, or PIP, could qualify the sponsor for a two-year marketing exclusivity extension to the ten-year marketing exclusivity which is granted at the time of review of the orphan medicinal designation. The orphan drug market exclusivity does not, however, pertain to indications other than those for which the drug was specifically designated in the approval, nor does it prevent other types of drugs from receiving orphan designations or approvals in these same indications. Further, even after an orphan drug is approved, the FDA can subsequently approve a drug with similar chemical structure for the same condition if the FDA concludes that the new drug is clinically superior to the orphan product or a market shortage occurs.

In the EU, orphan exclusivity may be reduced to six years if the drug no longer satisfies the original designation criteria or can be lost altogether if the marketing authorization holder consents to a second orphan drug application or cannot supply enough drug, or when a second applicant demonstrates its drug is “clinically superior” to the original orphan drug. We have received orphan drug designation from the FDA and orphan medicinal product designation was granted by the European Commission to XEN496 as a treatment of KCNQ2-DEE and Neurocrine Biosciences received orphan drug designation from the FDA for NBI-921352 as a treatment of SCN8A. If we seek orphan drug designations for other indications or in other jurisdictions, we may fail to receive such orphan drug designations and, even if we succeed, such orphan drug designations may fail to result in or maintain orphan drug exclusivity upon approval, which would harm our competitive position. Further, not all jurisdictions, such as Canada, have orphan drug designations. Neither orphan drug designation, nor rare pediatric disease, or RPD, designation gives the drug any advantage in the regulatory review or approval process other than potential fee reductions, and in the case of RPD, priority review vouchers.

Although the FDA has granted  RPD designation to NBI-921352 for the treatment of SCN8A-DEE, we may not be able to realize any value from such designation.

NBI-921352, being developed by our collaborator Neurocrine Biosciences, has received RPD designation for the treatment of SCN8A-DEE. The FDA defines a “rare pediatric disease” as a disease that affects fewer than 200,000 individuals in the U.S. primarily under the age of 18 years old. Under the FDA’s RPD priority review voucher program, upon the approval of an NDA or a biologics license application, BLA, for the treatment of an RPD, the sponsor of such application would be eligible for a priority review voucher that can be used to obtain priority review for a subsequent NDA or BLA. There is no assurance  Neurocrine Biosciences will receive a RPD priority review voucher or that use of the priority review voucher will result in a faster review or approval for a subsequent marketing application. It is possible that even if Neurocrine Biosciences obtains approval for NBI-921352 in SCN8A-DEE and qualifies for such a priority review voucher, the program may no longer be in effect at the time of approval of this product candidate. Also, although priority review vouchers may be freely sold or transferred to third parties, there is no guarantee that we will be able to realize any value if we or our any of our collaborators were to sell a priority review voucher to a third party. In addition, as part of the Coronavirus Response and Relief Supplemental Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2021, Congress extended FDA authorization to operate the RPD Priority Review Voucher Program through fiscal year 2024. RPD Designation does not lead to faster development or regulatory review of the product, or increase the likelihood that it will receive marketing approval.

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Even though XEN496 has Fast Track designation from FDA for the prevention of KCNQ2-DEE, it may not lead to a faster development or regulatory review or approval process, and will not increase the likelihood that XEN496 will receive marketing approval.  

If a drug is intended for the treatment of a serious or life-threatening condition or disease, and nonclinical or clinical data demonstrate the potential to address an unmet medical need, the product may qualify for FDA Fast Track or Breakthrough Therapy designations and/or PRIority Medicines, or PRIME, designation from the EMA, for which sponsors must apply. The FDA and the EMA have broad discretion whether or not to grant those designations. Although we have received Fast Track designation for the investigation of XEN496 for the treatment of KCNQ2-DEE, we may not experience a faster development process, review or approval compared to conventional FDA procedures. In addition, the FDA may withdraw Fast Track or Breakthrough Therapy designation and the EMA may withdraw PRIME designation if the relevant agency believes that the designation is no longer supported by data from the applicable clinical development program. 

Results of pre-clinical studies and/or earlier clinical trials may not be predictive of the results of later-stage clinical trials and the results of our clinical trials may not satisfy the requirements of the FDA, EMA, Health Canada or foreign regulatory authorities.

The results of pre-clinical studies, either generated by us, such as for XEN901 (licensed to Neurocrine Biosciences and is now known as NBI-921352) or XEN402 (owned by Pacira BioSciences for use in its product candidate PCRX301), by our CROs or by other third parties from which we have in-licensed or acquired a product candidate, may not be predictive of results in clinical testing. Moreover, pre-clinical results can often be difficult to compare across different studies for a variety of reasons, including differences in experimental protocols and techniques, personnel, equipment and other factors, which may make the pre-clinical results less reliable and predictive of clinical trial results. In addition, published clinical data or case reports from third parties or early clinical trial data of our product candidates may not be predictive of the results of later-stage clinical trials. Interpretation of results from early, usually smaller, studies that suggest a clinically meaningful response in some patients, requires caution. Results from later stages of clinical trials enrolling more patients may fail to show the desired safety and efficacy results or otherwise fail to be consistent with the results of earlier trials of the same product candidate. Later clinical trial results may not replicate earlier clinical trials for a variety of reasons, including differences in trial design, different trial endpoints (or lack of trial endpoints in exploratory studies), patient population, number of patients, patient selection criteria, trial duration, drug dosage and formulation and lack of statistical power in the earlier studies. These uncertainties are enhanced where the diseases or disorders under study lack established clinical endpoints, validated measures of efficacy, as is often the case with orphan diseases or disorders for which no drugs have been developed previously and where the product candidates target novel mechanisms. For example, to our knowledge, NBI-921352 is the first selective Nav1.6 sodium channel inhibitor being developed for the treatment of epilepsy and therefore standard pre-clinical models may not be predictive of clinical efficacy due to its novel molecular mechanism.

Further, our product candidates may not be approved even if they achieve their primary endpoint in our Phase 3 clinical trials. The FDA, EMA, Health Canada or foreign regulatory authorities may disagree with our trial design and our interpretation of data from pre-clinical studies and clinical trials. In addition, any of these regulatory authorities may change its requirements for the approval of a product candidate even after reviewing and providing comments or advice on a protocol for a pivotal clinical trial that, if successful, would potentially form the basis for an application for approval by the FDA, EMA, Health Canada or another regulatory authority. Furthermore, any of these regulatory authorities may also approve our product candidates for a narrower indication than we request or may grant approval contingent on the performance of costly post-marketing clinical trials.

Interim, initial, “top-line” and preliminary data from our clinical trials that we announce or publish from time to time may change as more patient data become available and are subject to audit and verification procedures that could result in material changes in the final data.

From time to time, we may publicly disclose preliminary or top-line data from our preclinical studies and clinical trials, which are based on preliminary analyses of then-available data, and the results and related findings and conclusions are subject to change following a more comprehensive review of the data related to the particular preclinical study or clinical trial. We also make assumptions, estimations, calculations and conclusions as part of our analyses of data, and we may not have received or had the opportunity to fully and carefully evaluate all data. As a result, the top-line or preliminary results that we report may differ from future results of the same studies or trials, or different conclusions or considerations may qualify such results, once additional data have been received and fully evaluated. Top-line data also remain subject to audit and verification procedures that may result in the final data being materially different from the preliminary data we previously published. As a result, top-line data should be viewed with caution until the final data are available.

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Further, others, including regulatory agencies, may not accept or agree with our assumptions, estimates, calculations, conclusions or analyses or may interpret or weigh the importance of data differently, which could impact the value of the particular program, the approvability or commercialization of the particular product candidate or product and could have a material adverse effect on the success of our business. In addition, the information we choose to publicly disclose regarding a particular study or clinical trial is based on what is typically extensive information, and you or others may not agree with what we determine is material or otherwise appropriate information to include in our disclosure. If the interim, top-line or preliminary data that we report differ from actual results, or if others, including regulatory authorities, disagree with the conclusions reached, our ability to obtain approval for, and commercialize, our product candidates may be harmed, which could harm our business, results of operations, prospects or financial condition. Further, disclosure of interim, top-line or preliminary data by us or by our competitors could result in volatility in the price of our common stock.

Our approach to drug discovery is unproven, and we do not know whether we will be able to develop any products of commercial value.

Our approach to drug discovery may not reproducibly or cost-effectively result in the discovery of product candidates and development of commercially viable products that safely and effectively treat human disease.

Our drug discovery efforts may initially show promise in identifying additional potential product candidates yet fail to yield viable product candidates for clinical development or commercialization. Such failure may occur for many reasons, including that any product candidate may, on further study, be shown to have serious or unexpected side effects or other characteristics that indicate it is unlikely to be safe or otherwise does not meet applicable regulatory criteria and/or not be capable of being produced in commercial quantities at an acceptable cost, or at all.

If our discovery activities fail to identify novel targets for drug discovery, or such targets prove to be unsuitable for treating human disease, or if we are unable to develop product candidates with specificity and selectivity for such targets, we will fail to develop viable products. If we fail to develop and commercialize viable products, we will not achieve commercial success.

Changes in methods of product candidate manufacturing or formulation may result in additional costs or delay.

As product candidates are developed through pre-clinical to late-stage clinical trials towards approval and commercialization, it is common that various aspects of the development program, such as manufacturing methods and formulations, are altered along the way in an effort to optimize products, processes and results, to extend patent protection and/or to target different populations. For example, XEN496 is a pediatric-specific formulation of ezogabine and we have also developed a pediatric formulation for NBI-921352 that was included in the license to Neurocrine Biosciences. Any of these changes could cause our product candidates to perform differently and not provide the same drug exposure profile in children and/or cause side effects different to those observed with the same formulation in adults or with other formulations. Unexpected changes in the performance of a new formulation may affect the results of planned clinical trials or other future clinical trials conducted with the altered materials. This could delay completion of clinical trials, require the conduct of additional bridging clinical trials or the repetition of one or more clinical trials, increase clinical trial costs and/or delay or jeopardize approval of our product candidates and/or jeopardize our or our collaborators’ ability to commence product sales and generate revenue.

Even if we obtain and maintain approval for our product candidates from one jurisdiction, we may never obtain approval for our product candidates in other jurisdictions, which would limit our market opportunities and adversely affect our business.

Sales of our approved products, if any, will be subject to the regulatory requirements governing marketing approval in the countries in which we obtain regulatory approval, and we plan to seek, ourselves or with collaborators, regulatory approval to commercialize our product candidates in North America, the EU and in additional foreign countries. Clinical trials conducted in one country may not be accepted by regulatory authorities in other countries and regulatory approval in one country does not ensure approval in any other country, while a failure or delay in obtaining regulatory approval in one country may have a negative effect on the regulatory approval process in others. For example, approval in the U.S. by the FDA does not ensure approval by regulatory authorities in other countries or jurisdictions, and approval by one foreign regulatory authority does not ensure approval by the FDA, EMA, Health Canada or regulatory authorities in other countries. Approval procedures vary among jurisdictions and can be lengthy and expensive, and involve requirements and administrative review periods different from, and potentially greater than, those in the U.S., including additional pre-clinical studies or clinical trials. Even if our product candidates are approved, regulatory approval for any product may be withdrawn by the regulatory authorities in a particular jurisdiction.

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Even if a product is approved, the FDA, EMA, Health Canada, or another applicable regulatory authority, as the case may be, may limit the indications for which the product may be marketed, require extensive warnings on the product labeling or require expensive and time-consuming post-approval commitments including clinical trials or onerous risk management activities, including Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategies, or REMS, in the United States as conditions of approval to help ensure that the benefits of the drug outweigh the potential risks. REMS can include medication guides, communication plans for health care professionals, and elements to assure safe use, or ETASU. ETASU can include, but are not limited to, special training or certification for prescribing or dispensing, dispensing only under certain circumstances, special monitoring, and the use of patient registries. The requirement for a REMS can materially affect the potential market and profitability of the drug. Moreover, product approval may require substantial post-approval testing and surveillance to monitor the drug’s safety or efficacy. Once granted, product approvals may be withdrawn if compliance with regulatory standards is not maintained or problems are identified following initial marketing. In many countries outside the U.S., a product candidate must be approved for reimbursement before it can be approved for sale in that country. In some cases, the price that we intend to charge for a product is also subject to approval.

Regulatory authorities in countries outside of the U.S., Canada and the EU also have their own requirements for approval of product candidates with which we must comply prior to marketing in those countries. Obtaining foreign regulatory approvals and compliance with such foreign regulatory requirements could result in significant delays, difficulties and costs for us or our collaborators and could delay or prevent the introduction of our current and any future products, in certain countries.

If we or our collaborators fail to receive applicable marketing approvals or comply with the regulatory requirements in international markets, our target market will be reduced and our ability to realize the full market potential of our product candidates will be harmed and our business will be adversely affected.

Risks Related to Commercialization

If, in the future, we are unable to establish our own sales, marketing and distribution capabilities or enter into agreements for these purposes, we may not be successful in independently commercializing any future products.

We do not have a sales or marketing infrastructure and, as a company, have no sales, marketing or distribution experience. Our strategy involves building our own commercial infrastructure to selectively commercialize future products in certain commercial markets which will be expensive and time consuming. For certain products, including XEN496 and XEN1101, and/or specific commercial markets, we may seek commercial partners. In some cases, we may seek to retain the right to participate in the future development and commercialization of such products if we believe such involvement would advance our business.

To develop internal sales, distribution and marketing capabilities in North America, we will have to invest significant amounts of financial and management resources, some of which will need to be committed prior to any confirmation that any of our product candidates will be approved. We have no prior experience as a company in the marketing, sale and distribution of biopharmaceutical products and there are significant risks involved in building and managing a commercial organization. For any future products for which we decide to perform sales, marketing and distribution functions ourselves, we could face a number of additional risks, including:

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Where and when appropriate, we may elect to utilize contract sales forces, distribution partners or collaborators that have sales, marketing and distribution capabilities to assist in the commercialization of or independently commercialize our product candidates. If we enter into arrangements with third parties to perform sales, marketing and distribution services for a product, the resulting revenue or the profitability from this revenue to us is likely to be lower than if we had sold, marketed and distributed that product ourselves. In addition, we may not be successful in entering into arrangements with third parties to sell, market, and distribute our product candidates or may be unable to do so on terms that are favorable to us. We likely will have little control over such third parties, and any of these third parties may fail to devote the necessary resources and attention to sell, market, and distribute our current or any future products effectively.

Even if we receive regulatory approval to commercialize any of our product candidates, we will be subject to ongoing regulatory obligations and continued regulatory review, which may result in significant additional expense.

Any regulatory approvals that we receive for the product candidates we commercialize, alone or with a collaborator, will be subject to limitations on the approved indicated uses for which the product may be marketed or subject to certain conditions of approval and may contain requirements for potentially costly post-approval trials, including Phase 4 clinical trials, and surveillance to monitor the safety and efficacy of the marketed product and compliance with the approved package insert. In addition, our product candidates may receive schedule classifications under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 (or scheduling classifications under similar legislation outside of the United States) which will result in additional complexity and may result in delays and restrictions with respect to manufacturing, supply chain, licensing, import/export and distribution.

For any approved product, we or our collaborators will need to ensure continued compliance with extensive regulations and requirements regarding the manufacturing processes, labeling, packaging, distribution, adverse event reporting, storage, advertising, promotion and recordkeeping for the product. These requirements include submissions of safety and other post-approval information and reports, as well as continued compliance with current good manufacturing practices, or cGMP, and current good clinical practices, or cGCP, for any clinical trials that we or our collaborators are required to conduct post-approval. Post-approval discovery of previously unknown problems with a product, including adverse events of unanticipated severity or frequency, or with third-party manufacturers or manufacturing processes, or failure to comply with regulatory requirements, may result in, among other things:

Occurrence of any of the foregoing could have a material and adverse effect on our business and results of operations.

In addition, prescription drugs may be promoted only for the approved indications in accordance with the approved label. The FDA and other agencies actively enforce the laws and regulations prohibiting the promotion of off-label uses, and a company that is found to have improperly promoted off-label use may be subject to significant liability. However, physicians may, in their independent medical judgment, prescribe legally available products for off-label uses. The FDA does not regulate the behavior of physicians in their choice of treatments but the FDA and other foreign regulators do restrict manufacturer’s communications on the subject of off-label use of their products.

To the extent we develop and commercialize product candidates that contain or are considered controlled substances, such product candidates are subject to controlled substance laws and regulations in the territories where the product candidates will be developed and commercialized, and any failure by us or our CROs, CMOs and other contractors to comply with controlled substance laws and regulations, or the cost of compliance with these laws and regulations, may adversely affect the results of our business operations, both during clinical development and post approval, and our financial condition

XEN496 contains ezogabine, a Schedule V controlled substance, and is subject to controlled substance laws and regulations in the U.S. We have received letters of no objection which confirm XEN496 is not considered a controlled substance in Canada, Australia and the European countries where XEN496 will be imported for the EPIK trial. We may in the future develop other product candidates that are considered controlled substances in multiple jurisdictions, such as the U.S., Canada, and the EU, which will expose us to additional controlled substance regulatory requirements in each applicable jurisdiction where we engage in regulated activities, including storage, manufacture, research, clinical trials, import, and export, among other activities. For example, obtaining and maintaining the necessary registrations may result in delay of the importation, manufacturing or distribution of our controlled substance product candidates and may extend our anticipated timelines for our XEN496 EPIK trial or other clinical trials we run.

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Controlled substances or scheduled substances are regulated by the DEA under the CSA. The DEA regulates compounds as Schedule I, II, III, IV or V substances. Pharmaceutical products approved for use in the United States may be listed as Schedule II, III, IV or V, with Schedule II substances considered to present the highest potential for abuse or dependence and Schedule V substances the lowest relative risk of abuse among such substances.

Scheduling determinations by the DEA are dependent on FDA approval of a substance or a specific formulation of a substance. This scheduling determination will be dependent on FDA approval and the FDA’s recommendation as to the appropriate schedule, which may introduce a delay into the approval and any potential rescheduling process. There can be no assurance that the DEA will make a favorable scheduling decision. Substances that are Schedule II, III, IV or V controlled substances at the federal level may also require scheduling determinations under state laws and regulations, as well as similar foreign controlled substances regulations, if applicable. If approved by the FDA, a number of post-approval activities involving controlled substances will be subject to regulation by the DEA, including DEA regulations relating to registration and inspection of facilities, manufacturing, storage, distribution and physician prescription procedures, among others. Furthermore, failure of our contractors, such as our CROs and CMOs, to maintain compliance with the CSA during development and/or commercialization, as applicable, can result in a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Individual U.S. states and countries outside of the U.S. have also established controlled substance laws and regulations. Those laws and regulations, including state controlled substances laws that often but not necessarily mirror federal law, may separately schedule our product candidates. Complying with different controlled substances requirements across different jurisdictions can increase the cost of our operations and expose us to additional liabilities.

Even if we obtain marketing approval for our product candidates, the presence of a controlled substance in the product candidate may lead to adverse publicity or public perception regarding our current or future product candidates.

Our product candidate XEN496 contains a Schedule V controlled substance. If XEN496 or our other product candidates that are subject to controlled substances regulation are approved for commercial sale, adverse publicity or public perception of controlled substances in general or other controlled substances could negatively impact market acceptance or consumer perception of our product candidates. We may face limited adoption if clinicians or patients are unwilling to try a novel treatment that contains a controlled substance. Any adverse publicity associated with illness or other adverse effects resulting from patients’ use or misuse of our or similar therapies distributed by other companies could have a material adverse impact on our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations.

Future adverse events and research in controlled substances that are present in the product candidates could also result in greater governmental regulation, stricter labeling requirements and potential regulatory delays in the testing or approvals of our product candidates. Any increased scrutiny could delay or increase the costs of obtaining regulatory approval for our product candidates.

If the market opportunities for our product candidates are smaller than we believe they are, our revenue may be adversely affected, and our business may suffer. Because the target patient populations for some of our product candidates are small, we must be able to successfully identify patients and acquire a significant market share to achieve profitability and growth.

Some of our product candidates focus on treatments for rare and ultra-rare disorders. Given the small number of patients who have some of the disorders that we are targeting, our profitability and growth depend on successfully identifying patients with these rare and ultra-rare disorders. Currently, most reported estimates of the prevalence of these disorders are based on studies of small subsets of the population in specific geographic areas, which are then extrapolated to estimate the prevalence of the disorders in the U.S. or elsewhere. Our projections of both the number of people who have these disorders, as well as the subset of people with these disorders who have the potential to benefit from treatment with our product candidates, are based on our internal estimates. These estimates have been derived from a variety of sources, including scientific literature, surveys of clinics, patient foundations, and market research, and may prove to be incorrect. Further, new studies may change the estimated incidence or prevalence of these disorders, and, as a result, the number of patients with these disorders may turn out to be lower than expected.

Our effort to identify patients with diseases or disorders we seek to treat is in early stages, and we cannot accurately predict the number of patients for whom treatment might be possible. Additionally, the potentially addressable patient population for some of our product candidates may be limited or may not be amenable to treatment with our product candidates, and new patients may become increasingly difficult to identify or gain access to, which would adversely affect our results of operations and our business. Finally, even if we obtain significant market share for our product candidates focused on treatments for rare and ultra-rare disorders, because the potential target populations are very small, we may never achieve profitability despite obtaining such significant market share.

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Even if we or our collaborators receive approval to commercialize our products, unfavorable pricing regulations and challenging third-party coverage and reimbursement practices could harm our business.

Our or our collaborators’ ability to commercialize any products successfully will depend, in part, on the extent to which coverage and reimbursement for these products and related treatments will be available from government healthcare programs, private health insurers, managed care plans, and other organizations. Government authorities and third-party payers, such as private health insurers and health maintenance organizations, decide which medications they will pay for and establish reimbursement levels. A primary trend in the U.S. healthcare industry is cost containment. Government authorities and third-party payers have attempted to control costs by limiting coverage and the amount of reimbursement for particular medications. Increasingly, third-party payers are requiring that drug companies provide them with predetermined discounts from list prices and are challenging the prices charged for medical products. We cannot be sure that coverage and reimbursement will be available for any product that we or our collaborators commercialize and, if reimbursement is available, the level of reimbursement. In addition, coverage and reimbursement may impact the demand for, or the price of, any product candidate for which we or a collaborator obtains marketing approval. If coverage and reimbursement are not available or reimbursement is available only to limited levels, we or our collaborators may not be able to successfully commercialize any product candidate for which marketing approval is obtained.

There may be significant delays in obtaining coverage and reimbursement for newly approved drugs, and coverage may be more limited than the purposes for which the drug is approved by the FDA, EMA, Health Canada or other regulatory authorities. Moreover, eligibility for coverage and reimbursement does not imply that a drug will be paid for in all cases or at a rate that covers our costs, including research, development, manufacture, sale and distribution expenses. Interim reimbursement levels for new drugs, if applicable, may also be insufficient to cover our and our collaborators’ costs and may not be made permanent. Reimbursement rates may vary according to the use of the drug and the clinical setting in which it is used, may be based on reimbursement levels already set for lower cost drugs and may be incorporated into existing payments for other services. Net prices for drugs may be reduced by mandatory discounts or rebates required by government healthcare programs or private payers and by any future relaxation of laws that presently restrict imports of drugs from countries where they may be sold at lower prices than in the U.S. Third-party payers often rely upon Medicare coverage policy and payment limitations in setting their own reimbursement policies. Our or our collaborators’ inability to promptly obtain coverage and profitable payment rates from both government-funded and private payers for any approved products that we or our collaborators develop could have a material adverse effect on our operating results, our ability to raise capital needed to commercialize products and our overall financial condition.

Some of our and our collaborators’ target patient populations in orphan and niche indications, such as KCNQ2-DEE and SCN8A-DEE. In order for therapies that are designed to treat smaller patient populations to be commercially viable, the pricing, coverage and reimbursement for such therapies needs to be higher, on a relative basis, to account for the lack of volume. Accordingly, we will need to implement pricing, coverage and reimbursement strategies for any approved product that accounts for the smaller potential market size. If we are unable to establish or sustain coverage and adequate reimbursement for our current and any future products from third party payers or the government, the adoption of those products and sales revenue will be adversely affected, which, in turn, could adversely affect the ability to market or sell those products.

Recently enacted and future legislation may increase the difficulty and cost for us to commercialize any products that we or our collaborators develop and affect the prices we may obtain.

The U.S. and some foreign jurisdictions are considering or have enacted a number of legislative and regulatory proposals to change the healthcare system in ways that could affect our ability to sell any of our products profitably, once such products are approved for sale. Among policy makers and payers in the U.S. and elsewhere, there is significant interest in promoting changes in healthcare systems with the stated goals of containing healthcare costs, improving quality and/or expanding access. In the U.S., the pharmaceutical industry has been a particular focus of these efforts and has been significantly affected by major legislative initiatives.

For example, in 2010, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, as amended by the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010, collectively, the PPACA, was enacted and includes measures that have significantly changed the way healthcare is financed by both governmental and private insurers. Since its enactment, there have been legislative and judicial efforts to repeal, replace, or change some or all of the PPACA. For example, various portions of the PPACA have been the subject of legal and constitutional challenges. In June 2021, the United States Supreme Court held that Texas and other challengers had no legal standing to challenge the PPACA, dismissing the case without specifically ruling on the constitutionality of the PPACA. Accordingly, the PPACA remains in effect in its current form. It is unclear how this Supreme Court decision, future litigation, and healthcare measures promulgated by the Biden administration will impact the implementation of the PPACA, our business, financial condition and results of operations. Complying with any new legislation or changes in healthcare regulation could be time-intensive and expensive, resulting in a material adverse effect on our business.

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In addition, there has been heightened governmental scrutiny over the manner in which manufacturers set prices for their marketed products, which has resulted in several Congressional inquiries and proposed and enacted federal and state legislation designed to, among other things, bring more transparency to product pricing, review the relationship between pricing and manufacturer patient programs, and reform government program reimbursement methodologies for pharmaceutical products. For example, HHS and CMS issued final rules in November and December of 2020 that are expected to impact, among others, price reductions from pharmaceutical manufacturers to plan sponsors under Part D, fee arrangements between pharmacy benefit managers and manufacturers, prescription drug importation, manufacturer price reporting requirements under the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program, including regulations that affect manufacturer-sponsored patient assistance programs subject to pharmacy benefit manager accumulator programs and Best Price reporting related to certain value-based purchasing arrangements. Multiple lawsuits have been brought against the HHS challenging various aspects of these new rules. Under the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021, effective January 1, 2024, the statutory cap on Medicaid Drug Rebate Program rebates that manufacturers pay to state Medicaid programs will be eliminated. Elimination of this cap may require pharmaceutical manufacturers to pay more in rebates than it receives on the sale of products, which could have a material impact on our business. In July 2021, the Biden administration released an executive order, “Promoting Competition in the American Economy,” with multiple provisions aimed at increasing competition for prescription drugs. In response to Biden's executive order, on September 9, 2021, HHS released a Comprehensive Plan for Addressing High Drug Prices that outlines principles for drug pricing reform and potential legislative policies that Congress could pursue to advance these principles.  In addition, Congress is considering legislation that, if passed, could have significant impact on prices of prescription drugs covered by Medicare, including limitations on drug price increases. The impact of these regulations and any future healthcare measures and agency rules implemented by the Biden administration on us and the pharmaceutical industry as a whole is currently unknown.

At the state level, legislatures have increasingly passed legislation and implemented regulations designed to control pharmaceutical and biological product pricing, including price or patient reimbursement constraints, discounts, restrictions on certain product access and marketing cost disclosure and transparency measures, and, in some cases, designed to encourage importation from other countries and bulk purchasing. Further, a number of states are considering or have recently enacted state drug price transparency and reporting laws that could substantially increase our compliance burdens and expose us to greater liability under such state laws once we begin commercialization. These and other health reform measures that are implemented may have a material adverse effect on our operations.

We are unable to predict the future course of federal or state healthcare legislation in the United States directed at broadening the availability of healthcare and containing or lowering the cost of healthcare. These and any further changes in the law or regulatory framework could reduce our ability to generate revenue in the future or increase our costs, either of which could have a material and adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations. It is also possible that additional governmental action will be taken to address the COVID-19 pandemic. The continuing efforts of the government, insurance companies, managed care organizations, and other payors of healthcare services and medical products to contain or reduce costs of healthcare and/or impose price controls may adversely affect the demand for our product candidates, if approved, and our ability to achieve or maintain profitability.

In the EU, similar political, economic and regulatory developments may affect our or our collaborators’ ability to profitably commercialize our current or any future products. In addition to continuing pressure on prices and cost containment measures, legislative developments at the EU or member state level may result in significant additional requirements or obstacles that may increase our operating costs. In international markets, reimbursement and healthcare payment systems vary significantly by country, and many countries have instituted price ceilings on specific products and therapies. Our future products, if any, might not be considered medically reasonable and necessary for a specific indication or cost-effective by third-party payers. An adequate level of reimbursement might not be available for such products and third-party payers’ reimbursement policies might adversely affect our or our collaborators’ ability to sell any future products profitably.

Legislative and regulatory proposals have been made to expand post-approval requirements and restrict sales and promotional activities for pharmaceutical products. We cannot be sure whether additional legislative changes will be enacted, or whether the FDA regulations, guidance or interpretations will be changed, or what the impact of such changes on the marketing approvals of our product candidates, if any, may be. In addition, increased scrutiny by the U.S. Congress of the FDA’s approval process may significantly delay or prevent marketing approval, as well as subject us to more stringent product labeling and post-approval testing and other requirements.

We cannot predict the likelihood, nature or extent of government regulation that may arise from future legislation or administrative action, either in the U.S. or in other jurisdictions. If we or our collaborators are slow or unable to adapt to changes in existing requirements or the adoption of new requirements or policies, or if we or our collaborators are not able to maintain regulatory compliance, our product candidates may lose any marketing approval that may have been obtained and we may not achieve or sustain profitability, which would adversely affect our business.

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Foreign governments tend to impose strict price controls, which may adversely affect our future profitability.

In many countries outside the U.S., particularly those in the EU and Canada, prescription drug pricing and/or reimbursement is subject to governmental control. In those countries that impose price controls, pricing negotiations with governmental authorities can take considerable time after the receipt of marketing approval for a product. To obtain reimbursement or pricing approval in some countries, we or our collaborators may be required to conduct a clinical trial that compares the cost-effectiveness of our product candidate to other available therapies. As of February 2022, Canada is in the midst of implementing new drug pricing regulations and additional pricing guidance that will affect the price at which patented medicines can be sold, with the implementation date delayed until July 2022 to provide additional time for the industry to adapt to new reporting obligations. Such regulations, as well as future regulations on drug pricing and reporting obligations, will increase manufacturers’ compliance burden, which can be expensive and time consuming.

Some countries require approval of the sale price of a drug before it can be marketed. In many countries, the pricing review period begins after marketing or product licensing approval is granted. In some foreign markets, prescription pharmaceutical pricing remains subject to continuing governmental control even after initial approval is granted. As a result, we or our collaborators might obtain marketing approval for a product in a particular country, but then be subject to price regulations that delay commercial launch of the product, possibly for lengthy time periods, and negatively impact the revenue that is generated from the sale of the product in that country. If reimbursement of such products is unavailable or limited in scope or amount, or if pricing is set at unsatisfactory levels, or if there is competition from lower priced cross-border sales, our profitability will be negatively affected.

Risks Related to Our Dependence on Third Parties

Our prospects for successful development and commercialization of our partnered products and product candidates are dependent upon the research, development and marketing efforts of our collaborators.

We have no control over the resources, time and effort that our collaborators may devote to our programs and limited access to information regarding or resulting from such programs. We are dependent on our collaborators, including Neurocrine Biosciences and Pacira BioSciences, to fund and conduct the research and any clinical development of product candidates under our agreements with each of them, and for the successful regulatory approval, marketing and commercialization of one or more of such products or product candidates. Such success will be subject to significant uncertainty.

Our ability to recognize revenue from successful collaborations may be impaired by multiple factors including:

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If our collaborators do not perform in the manner we expect or fulfill their responsibilities in a timely manner, or at all, the clinical development, regulatory approval and commercialization efforts could be delayed, terminated or be commercially unsuccessful. Conflicts between us and our collaborators may arise. In the event of termination of one or more of our collaboration agreements, it may become necessary for us to assume the responsibility of any terminated product or product candidates at our own expense or seek new collaborators. In that event, we could be required to limit the size and scope of one or more of our independent programs or increase our expenditures and seek additional funding which may not be available on acceptable terms or at all, and our business could be materially and adversely affected.

We depend on our collaborative relationship with Neurocrine Biosciences to further develop and commercialize NBI-921352, and if our relationship is not successful or is terminated, we may not be able to effectively develop and/or commercialize NBI-921352, which could have a material adverse effect on our business.

We depend on Neurocrine Biosciences to collaborate with us to develop and commercialize NBI-921352. Under the agreement and subject to input from the joint steering committee, Neurocrine Biosciences controls all decision-making with respect to the clinical development and commercialization for NBI-921352.

As a result of our collaboration with Neurocrine Biosciences, the eventual success or commercial viability of NBI-921352 is largely beyond our control. The financial returns to us, if any, depend in large part on the achievement of development and commercialization milestones, plus a share of any revenue from sales. Therefore, our success, and any associated financial returns to us and our investors, will depend in part on Neurocrine Biosciences’ performance under the agreement.

We are subject to a number of additional specific risks associated with our dependence on our collaborative relationship with Neurocrine Biosciences, including:

Although we have previously announced that Neurocrine Biosciences is conducting a Phase 2 clinical trial evaluating NBI-921352 in adult patients with focal onset seizures and a Phase 2 clinical trial evaluating NBI-921352 in pediatric patients (aged between 2 and 21 years) with SCN8A-DEE, we cannot be certain that Neurocrine Biosciences will continue to pursue these indications and we may not qualify for additional payments under our collaboration agreement.

If either we or Neurocrine Biosciences fail to perform our respective obligations, any clinical trial, regulatory approval or development progress could be significantly delayed or halted, could result in costly or time-consuming litigation or arbitration and could have a material adverse effect on our business.

Decisions by Neurocrine Biosciences to emphasize other drug candidates currently in its portfolio ahead of our product candidates, or to add competitive agents to its portfolio could result in a decision to terminate the agreement, in which event, among other things, we may be responsible for paying any remaining costs of all ongoing or future clinical trials, including expending additional time and resources needed to address any prior deficiencies or regulatory noncompliance issues that we may inherit from Neurocrine Biosciences upon any such termination.

Any of the above discussed scenarios could adversely affect the timing and extent of the development and commercialization activities related to NBI-921352, which could materially and adversely impact our business.

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We may not be successful in establishing new collaborations or maintaining our existing alliances, which could adversely affect our ability to develop product candidates and commercialize products.

In the ordinary course, we engage with other biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies to discuss potential in-licensing, out-licensing, alliances and other strategic transactions. We may seek to enter into these types of transactions to enhance and accelerate the development of our current or future product candidates and the commercialization of any resulting products. We face significant competition in seeking appropriate collaborators and the negotiation process is time-consuming and complex. Moreover, we may not be successful in our efforts to establish other collaborations or other alternative arrangements for any current or future product candidates because our research and development pipeline may be insufficient, our current or future product candidates may be deemed to be at too early of a stage of development for collaboration effort and/or third parties may view our product candidates as lacking the requisite potential to demonstrate safety and efficacy. Even if we are successful in our efforts to establish collaborations, the terms that we agree upon may not be favorable to us and we may not be able to maintain such collaborations if, for example, development or approval of a product candidate is delayed or sales of an approved product are disappointing.

If any of our existing collaboration agreements are terminated, or if we determine that entering into other product collaborations is in our best interest but we either fail to enter into, delay in entering into or fail to maintain such collaborations:

We rely on third-party manufacturers to produce our product candidates and on other third parties to store, monitor and transport bulk drug substance and drug product. We and our third-party partners may encounter difficulties with respect to these activities that may delay or impair our ability to initiate or complete our clinical trials, gain regulatory approvals or commercialize approved products.

We do not currently own or operate any manufacturing facilities nor do we have significant in-house manufacturing experience or personnel. We rely on our collaborators, either directly or through CMOs, to manufacture product candidates licensed to them or work with multiple CMOs to produce sufficient quantities of materials required for the manufacture of our product candidates for pre-clinical testing and clinical trials and intend to do so for the commercial manufacture of our products. If we or our collaborators are unable to arrange for such third-party manufacturing sources, or fail to do so on commercially reasonable terms, we or our collaborators may not be able to successfully produce sufficient supply of a product candidate or we or our collaborators may be delayed in doing so. Such failure or substantial delay could delay our clinical trials and materially harm our business. The manufacture of biopharmaceutical products is complex and requires significant expertise and capital investment, including the development of advanced manufacturing techniques and process controls. The process of manufacturing our product candidates is susceptible to product loss due to contamination, equipment failure or improper installation or operation of equipment, vendor or operator error, contamination and inconsistency in yields, variability in product characteristics and difficulties in scaling the production process. Even minor deviations from normal manufacturing processes could result in reduced production yields, product defects and other supply disruptions. If microbial, viral or other contaminations are discovered in our product candidates or in the third-party manufacturing facilities in which our product candidates are made, such manufacturing facilities may need to be closed for an extended period of time to investigate and remedy the contamination. Any adverse developments affecting manufacturing operations for our product candidates, if any are approved, may result in shipment delays, inventory shortages, lot failures, product withdrawals or recalls, or other interruptions in the supply of our products. We may also have to take inventory write-offs and incur other charges and expenses for products that fail to meet specifications, undertake costly remediation efforts or seek more costly manufacturing alternatives.

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Reliance on third-party manufacturers entails risks to which we would not be subject if we manufactured product candidates ourselves, including reliance on the third party for regulatory compliance and quality control and assurance, volume production, the possibility of breach of the manufacturing agreement by the third party because of factors beyond our control (including a failure to synthesize and manufacture our product candidates in accordance with our product specifications) and the possibility of termination or nonrenewal of the agreement by the third party at a time that is costly or damaging to us. In addition, the FDA, EMA, Health Canada and other regulatory authorities require that our product candidates be manufactured according to cGMP and similar foreign standards. Pharmaceutical manufacturers and their subcontractors are required to register their facilities and/or products manufactured at the time of submission of the marketing application and then annually thereafter with the FDA, EMA, Health Canada and other regulatory agencies. They are also subject to pre-approval inspections and periodic unannounced inspections by the FDA, EMA, Health Canada and other regulatory agencies. Any subsequent discovery of problems with a product, or a manufacturing or laboratory facility used by us or our collaborators, may result in restrictions on the product or on the manufacturing or laboratory facility, including product recall, suspension of manufacturing, product seizure or a voluntary withdrawal of the drug from the market. Any failure by our or our collaborators’ third-party manufacturers to comply with cGMP or any failure to deliver sufficient quantities of product candidates in a timely manner, could lead to a delay in, or failure to obtain, regulatory approval of any of our product candidates.

In addition to third-party manufacturers, we rely on other third parties to store, monitor and transport bulk drug substance and drug product. If we are unable to arrange for such third-party sources, or fail to do so on commercially reasonable terms, we may not be able to successfully supply sufficient product candidate or we may be delayed in doing so. Such failure or substantial delay could materially harm our business.

We rely on third parties to conduct our pre-clinical studies and clinical trials. If these third parties do not successfully carry out their contractual duties including to comply with applicable laws and regulations or meet expected deadlines, our business could be substantially harmed.

We rely on entities outside of our control, which may include academic institutions, CROs, hospitals, clinics and other third-party collaborators, to monitor, support, conduct and/or oversee pre-clinical and clinical studies of our current and future product candidates. As a result, we have less control over the timing and cost of these studies and the ability to recruit trial subjects than if we conducted these trials with our own personnel. For example, a Phase 2 proof-of-concept clinical trial examining XEN1101 in major depressive disorder and anhedonia is being conducted in partnership with academic collaborators at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, and patient enrollment was initiated in October 2021.

If we are unable to maintain or enter into agreements with these third parties on acceptable terms, or if any such engagement is terminated prematurely, we may be unable to enroll patients on a timely basis or otherwise conduct our trials in the manner we anticipate. In addition, there is no guarantee that these third parties will devote adequate time and resources to our studies or perform as required by our contract or in accordance with regulatory requirements, including maintenance of clinical trial information regarding our product candidates. If these third parties fail to meet expected deadlines, fail to transfer to us any regulatory information in a timely manner, fail to adhere to protocols or fail to act in accordance with regulatory requirements or our agreements with them, or if they otherwise perform in a substandard manner or in a way that compromises the quality or accuracy of their activities or the data they obtain, then clinical trials of our future product candidates may be extended or delayed with additional costs incurred, or our data may be rejected by the FDA, EMA, Health Canada or other regulatory agencies.

Ultimately, we are responsible for ensuring that each of our clinical trials is conducted in accordance with the applicable protocol, legal, regulatory and scientific standards, and our reliance on third parties does not relieve us of our regulatory responsibilities.

We, our CROs and CMOs are required to comply with current good laboratory practices, or cGLP, cGCP and cGMP regulations and guidelines enforced by the FDA, Health Canada, the competent authorities of the member states of the European Economic Area and comparable foreign regulatory authorities for products in clinical development. Regulatory authorities enforce these regulations through periodic inspections of clinical trial sponsors, principal investigators, clinical trial sites, manufacturing facilities, nonclinical testing facilities and other contractors. If we or any of our CROs or CMOs fail to comply with these applicable regulations, the clinical data generated in our nonclinical studies and clinical trials may be deemed unreliable and our submission of marketing applications may be delayed or the FDA, EMA, Health Canada or another regulatory authority may require us to perform additional clinical trials before approving our marketing applications. Upon inspection, the FDA, EMA, Health Canada or another regulatory authority could determine that any of our clinical trials fail or have failed to comply with applicable cGCP regulations. In addition, our clinical trials must be conducted with product produced under the cGMP regulations enforced by the FDA, EMA, Health Canada and other regulatory authorities, and our clinical trials may require a large number of test subjects. Our failure to comply with cGLP, cGCP and cGMP regulations may require us to repeat clinical trials or manufacture additional batches of drug which would delay the regulatory approval process and increase our costs. Moreover, our business may be implicated if any of our CROs or CMOs violates federal or state fraud and abuse or false claims laws and regulations or healthcare privacy and security laws, or if this is asserted or reported to have occurred.

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If any of our clinical trial sites terminates for any reason, we may experience the loss of follow-up information on patients enrolled in our ongoing clinical trials unless we are able to transfer the care of those patients to another qualified clinical trial site. Further, if our relationship with any of our CROs or CMOs is terminated, we may be unable to enter into arrangements with alternative CROs or CMOs on commercially reasonable terms, or at all.

Switching or adding CROs, CMOs or other suppliers can involve substantial cost and require extensive management time and focus. In addition, there is a natural transition period when a new CRO, CMO or supplier commences work. As a result, delays may occur, which can materially impact our ability to meet our desired clinical development timelines. If we are required to seek alternative supply arrangements, the resulting delays and potential inability to find a suitable replacement could materially and adversely impact our business.

We work with outside scientists and their institutions in executing our business strategy of developing product candidates. These scientists may have other commitments or conflicts of interest, which could limit our access to their expertise and harm our ability to develop viable product candidates.

We work with scientific advisors and collaborators at academic institutions and other research institutions. These scientists and collaborators are not our employees; rather, they serve as either independent contractors or the primary investigators under research collaboration agreements that we have with their sponsoring academic or research institution. Such scientists and collaborators may have other commitments that would limit their availability to us. Although our scientific advisors generally agree not to do competing work, if an actual or potential conflict of interest between their work for us and their work for another entity arises, we may lose their services. It is also possible that some of our valuable proprietary knowledge may become publicly known through these scientific advisors if they breach their confidentiality agreements with us, which would cause competitive harm to our business.

Risks Related to Intellectual Property

We could be unsuccessful in obtaining or maintaining adequate patent protection for one or more of our products or product candidates.

Our commercial success will depend, in large part, on our ability to obtain and maintain patent, trademark and trade secret protection of our product candidates, their respective components, formulations, methods used to manufacture them and methods of treatment, as well as successfully defending these patents against third-party challenges. We evaluate our global patent portfolio in the ordinary course of business to enhance patent protection in areas of our strategic focus and in key markets for our potential products and may abandon existing patents or patent applications related to terminated development programs, areas, or markets of low strategic importance.

Patents might not be issued or granted with respect to our patent applications that are currently pending, and issued or granted patents might later be found to be invalid or unenforceable, be interpreted in a manner that does not adequately protect our current product or any future products, or fail to otherwise provide us with any competitive advantage. The patent position of biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies is generally uncertain because it involves complex legal and factual considerations. The standards applied by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, or USPTO, and foreign patent offices in granting patents are not always applied uniformly or predictably. For example, there is no uniform worldwide policy regarding patentable subject matter or the scope of claims allowable in biotechnology and pharmaceutical patents. Consequently, patents may not issue from our pending patent applications, or we may end up with patent claims of different scope in different jurisdictions. As such, we do not know the degree of future protection that we will have on our proprietary products and technology, if any, and a failure to obtain adequate intellectual property protection with respect to our product candidates and proprietary technology could have a material adverse impact on our business.Periodic maintenance fees, renewal fees, annuity fees and various other governmental fees on patents and/or applications will be due to be paid to the USPTO and various governmental patent agencies outside of the U.S. in several stages over the lifetime of the patents and/or applications. The USPTO and various non-US governmental patent agencies require compliance with a number of procedural, documentary, fee payment and other similar provisions during the patent application and maintenance process. We employ reputable law firms and other professionals to help us comply with respect to the patents and patent applications that we own, and we rely upon our licensors or our other collaborators to effect compliance with respect to the patents and patent applications that we license. In some cases, an inadvertent lapse can be cured by payment of a late fee or by other means in accordance with the applicable rules. However, there are situations in which noncompliance can result in abandonment or lapse of the patent or patent application, resulting in partial or complete loss of patent rights in the relevant jurisdiction. In such an event, our competitors might be able to enter the market and this circumstance would have a material adverse effect on our business.

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Our intellectual property rights will not necessarily provide us with competitive advantages.

The degree of future protection afforded by our intellectual property rights is uncertain because intellectual property rights have limitations, and may not adequately protect our business, or may not permit us to maintain our competitive advantage.

The following examples are illustrative:

Any of the aforementioned threats to our competitive advantage could have a material adverse effect on our business.

We may not be able to protect our intellectual property rights throughout the world.

Filing, prosecuting, enforcing and defending patents on product candidates in all countries throughout the world would be prohibitively expensive, and our intellectual property rights in some countries outside the U.S. can be less extensive than those in the U.S. In addition, the laws of some foreign countries do not protect intellectual property rights to the same extent as federal and state laws in the U.S. Consequently, we may not be able to prevent third parties from practicing our inventions in all countries outside the U.S., or from offering to sell, selling, using, making or importing products made using our inventions in and into the U.S. or other jurisdictions. Competitors may use our technologies in jurisdictions where we have not obtained patent protection to develop their own products and further, may export otherwise infringing products to territories where we have patent protection, but enforcement is not as strong as that in the U.S. These products may compete with our current or future products, if any, and our patents or other intellectual property rights may not be effective or sufficient to prevent them from competing.

Many companies have encountered significant problems in protecting and defending intellectual property rights in foreign jurisdictions. The legal systems of certain countries, particularly certain developing countries, do not favor the enforcement of patents, trade secrets and other intellectual property protection, particularly those relating to biotechnology products, which could make it difficult for us to stop the infringement of our patents or marketing of competing products in violation of our proprietary rights generally. Proceedings to enforce our patent rights in foreign jurisdictions could result in substantial costs and divert our efforts and attention from other aspects of our business, could put our patents at risk of being invalidated or interpreted narrowly and our patent applications at risk of not issuing and could provoke third parties to assert claims against us. We may not prevail in any lawsuits that we initiate and the damages or other remedies awarded, if any, may not be commercially meaningful. Accordingly, our efforts to enforce our intellectual property rights around the world may be inadequate to obtain a significant commercial advantage from the intellectual property that we develop or license.

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Our patents covering one or more of our products or product candidates could be found invalid or unenforceable if challenged.

Any of our intellectual property rights could be challenged or invalidated despite measures we take to obtain patent and other intellectual property protection with respect to our product candidates and proprietary technology. For example, if we were to initiate legal proceedings against a third party to enforce a patent covering one of our product candidates, the defendant could counterclaim that our patent is invalid and/or unenforceable. In patent litigation in the U.S. and in some other jurisdictions, defendant counterclaims alleging invalidity and/or unenforceability are commonplace. Grounds for a validity challenge could be an alleged failure to meet any of several statutory requirements, for example, lack of novelty, obviousness, broken priority, lack of written description, insufficient or non-enablement. Grounds for an unenforceability assertion could be an allegation that someone connected with prosecution of the patent withheld material information from the USPTO or the applicable foreign counterpart, or made a misleading statement, during prosecution. A litigant or the USPTO itself could challenge our patents on this basis even if we believe that we have conducted our patent prosecution in accordance with the duty of candor and in good faith. The outcome following such a challenge is unpredictable.

With respect to challenges to the validity of our patents, for example, there might be invalidating prior art, of which we and the patent examiner were unaware during prosecution. If a defendant were to prevail on a legal assertion of invalidity and/or unenforceability, we would lose at least part, and perhaps all, of the patent protection on a product candidate. Even if a defendant does not prevail on a legal assertion of invalidity and/or unenforceability, our patent claims may be construed in a manner that would limit our ability to enforce such claims against the defendant and others. The cost of defending such a challenge, particularly in a foreign jurisdiction, and any resulting loss of patent protection could have a material adverse impact on one or more of our product candidates and our business.

Enforcing our intellectual property rights against third parties may also cause such third parties to file other counterclaims against us, which could be costly to defend, particularly in a foreign jurisdiction, and could require us to pay substantial damages, cease the sale of certain products or enter into a license agreement and pay royalties (which may not be possible on commercially reasonable terms, or at all). Any efforts to enforce our intellectual property rights are also likely to be costly and may divert the efforts of our scientific and management personnel.

Patent protection and patent prosecution for some of our product candidates is dependent on, and the ability to assert patents and defend them against claims of invalidity is maintained by, third parties.

There have been and may be times in the future when certain patents that relate to our product candidates or any approved products are controlled by our licensees, sublicensees, licensors or other collaborators. Although we may, under such arrangements, have rights to consult with our collaborators on actions taken as well as back-up rights of prosecution and enforcement, we have in the past and may in the future relinquish rights to prosecute and maintain patents and patent applications within our portfolio as well as the ability to assert such patents against infringers. For example, currently the rights relating to the patent portfolio for XEN901 (now known as NBI-921352), other selective Nav1.6 inhibitors and dual Nav1.2/1.6 inhibitors are exclusively licensed to Neurocrine Biosciences and the rights to the patent portfolio for XEN402 were sold to Pacira BioSciences (for use in its product candidate PCRX301).

If any current or future licensee, sublicensee, licensor or other collaborators with rights to prosecute, assert or defend patents related to our product candidates fails to appropriately prosecute and maintain patent protection for patents covering any of our product candidates, or if patents covering any of our product candidates are asserted against infringers or defended against claims of invalidity or unenforceability in a manner which adversely affects such coverage, our ability to develop and commercialize any such product candidate may be adversely affected and we may not be able to prevent competitors from making, using, importing, offering for sale, and/or selling competing products.

We may be involved in lawsuits to protect or enforce our patents or the patents of our licensors, which could be expensive, time consuming and unsuccessful.

Competitors may infringe our patents or the patents of our licensors. To counter infringement or unauthorized use, we may be required to file infringement claims, which can be expensive and time-consuming. In addition, in an infringement proceeding, a court may decide that a patent of ours or one of our licensors is not valid or is unenforceable or may refuse to stop the other party in such infringement proceeding from using the technology at issue on the grounds that our patents do not cover the technology in question. An adverse result in any litigation or defense proceedings could put one or more of our patents at risk of being invalidated, held unenforceable or interpreted narrowly, and could put any of our patent applications at risk of not yielding an issued patent.

Interference proceedings, derivation proceedings, entitlement proceedings, ex parte reexamination, inter partes review, post-grant review, and opposition proceedings provoked by third parties or brought by the USPTO or any foreign patent authority may be used to challenge inventorship, ownership, claim scope, or validity of our patent applications. An unfavorable outcome could require us to cease using the related technology or to attempt to license rights to it from the prevailing party. Our business could be harmed if the prevailing party does not offer us a license on commercially reasonable terms, if any license is offered at all. Litigation or interference proceedings may fail and, even if successful, may result in substantial costs and distract our management and other employees.

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We may not be able to prevent, alone or with our licensors, misappropriation of our trade secrets or confidential information, particularly in countries where the laws may not protect those rights as fully as in the U.S. Furthermore, because of the substantial amount of discovery required in connection with intellectual property litigation, there is a risk that some of our confidential information could be compromised by disclosure during this type of litigation. In addition, there could be public announcements of the results of hearings, motions or other interim proceedings or developments. If securities analysts or investors perceive these results to be negative, it could have a substantial adverse effect on the market price of our common shares.

In addition, we or our licensors may be subject to claims that former employees, collaborators or other third parties have an interest in our owned or in-licensed patents, trade secrets, or other intellectual property as an inventor or co-inventor. For example, we or our licensors may have inventorship disputes arise from conflicting obligations of employees, consultants or others who are involved in developing our product candidates. Litigation may be necessary to defend against these and other claims challenging inventorship or our or our licensors’ ownership of our owned or in-licensed patents, trade secrets or other intellectual property. If we or our licensors fail in defending any such claims, in addition to paying monetary damages, we may lose valuable intellectual property rights, such as exclusive ownership of, or right to use, intellectual property that is important to our product candidates. Even if we are successful in defending against such claims, litigation could result in substantial costs and be a distraction to management and other employees. Any of the foregoing could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

Claims that our product candidates or the sale, offer for sale, importation, manufacture, or use of our future products infringe the patent or other intellectual property rights of third parties could result in costly litigation or could require substantial time and money to resolve, even if litigation is avoided.

Our commercial success depends upon our ability to develop product candidates and commercialize products that may be approved in the future, using our proprietary technology without infringing the intellectual property rights of others. Our product or product candidates or any uses of them may now and in the future infringe third-party patents or other intellectual property rights. Third parties might allege that we or our collaborators are infringing their patent rights or that we have misappropriated their trade secrets, or that we are otherwise violating their intellectual property rights, whether with respect to the manner in which we have conducted our research or to the composition, use or manufacture of the compounds we have developed or are developing with our collaborators. Such third parties might resort to litigation against us or other parties we have agreed to indemnify, which litigation could be based on either existing intellectual property or intellectual property that arises in the future.

It is possible that relevant patents or patent applications held by third parties will cover our product candidates at the time of launch and we may also fail to identify, relevant patents or patent applications held by third parties that cover our product candidates. For example, U.S. applications filed before November 29, 2000, and certain applications filed after that date that will not be filed outside the U.S. remain confidential until patents issue. Other patent applications in the U.S. and several other jurisdictions are published approximately 18 months after the earliest filing for which priority is claimed, with such earliest filing date being commonly referred to as the priority date. Furthermore, publication of discoveries in the scientific or patent literature often lags behind actual discoveries. Therefore, we cannot be certain that we or our collaborators were the first to invent, or the first to file patent applications on our product candidates or for their uses, or that our product candidates will not infringe patents that are currently issued or that will be issued in the future. In the event that a third party has also filed a patent application covering one of our product candidates or a similar invention, we may have to participate in an adversarial proceeding, known as an interference or derivation proceeding, declared by the USPTO or its foreign counterpart to determine priority of invention. Additionally, pending patent applications and patents which have been published can, subject to certain limitations, be later amended in a manner that could cover our current or future products, if any, or their use.

Defending against claims of patent infringement, misappropriation of trade secrets or other violations of intellectual property rights could be costly and time consuming, regardless of the outcome. Thus, even if we were to ultimately prevail, or to settle at an early stage, such litigation could burden us with substantial unanticipated costs. In addition, litigation or threatened litigation could result in significant demands on the time and attention of our management team, distracting them from the pursuit of other company business. Claims that our product candidates or the selling, using, making, offering to sell, or importing, of our future products infringe, misappropriate or otherwise violate third-party intellectual property rights could therefore have a material adverse impact on our business.

Most of our competitors are larger than we are and have substantially greater financial resources. They are, therefore, likely to be able to sustain the costs of complex intellectual property litigation longer than we could. In addition, the uncertainties associated with litigation could have a material adverse effect on our ability to raise the funds necessary to conduct our clinical trials, continue our internal research programs, in-license needed technology, or enter into strategic collaborations that would help us bring our product candidates to market.

In addition, any future intellectual property litigation, interference or other administrative proceedings will result in additional expense and distraction of our personnel. An adverse outcome in such litigation or proceedings may expose us or any future strategic collaborators to loss of our proprietary position, expose us to significant liabilities, or require us to seek licenses that may not be available on commercially acceptable terms, if at all, each of which could have a material adverse effect on our business.

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Unfavorable outcomes in intellectual property litigation could limit our research and development activities and/or our ability to commercialize certain products.

If third parties successfully assert their intellectual property rights against us, we might be barred from using certain aspects of our technology or barred from developing and commercializing certain products. Prohibitions against using certain technologies, or prohibitions against commercializing certain products, could be imposed by a court or by a settlement agreement between us and a plaintiff. In addition, if we are unsuccessful in defending against allegations that we have infringed, misappropriated or otherwise violated patent or other intellectual property rights of others, we may be forced to pay substantial damage awards to the plaintiff. There is inevitable uncertainty in intellectual property litigation, and we could lose, even if the case against us is weak or flawed. If litigation leads to an outcome unfavorable to us, we may be required to obtain a license from the intellectual property owner in order to continue our research and development programs or to market any resulting product. It is possible that the necessary license will not be available to us on commercially acceptable terms, or at all. Alternatively, we may be required to modify or redesign our current or future products, if any, in order to avoid infringing or otherwise violating third-party intellectual property rights. This may not be technically or commercially feasible, may render those products less competitive, or may delay or prevent the entry of those products to the market. Any of the foregoing could limit our research and development activities, our ability to commercialize one or more product candidates, or both.

In order to avoid or settle potential claims with respect to any patent or other intellectual property rights of third parties, we may choose or be required to seek a license from a third party and be required to pay license fees or royalties or both, which could be substantial. These licenses may not be available on acceptable terms, or at all. Even if we or any future collaborators were able to obtain a license, the rights may be nonexclusive, which could result in our competitors gaining access to the same intellectual property. Ultimately, we could be prevented from commercializing a product, or be forced, by court order or otherwise, to cease some or all aspects of our business operations, if, as a result of actual or threatened patent or other intellectual property claims, we are unable to enter into licenses on acceptable terms. Further, we could be found liable for significant monetary damages as a result of claims of intellectual property infringement. In the future, we may receive offers to license and demands to license from third parties claiming that we are infringing their intellectual property or owe license fees and, even if such claims are without merit, we could fail to successfully avoid or settle such claims.

If Neurocrine Biosciences, Pacira BioSciences or other collaborators license or otherwise acquire rights to intellectual property controlled by a third party in various circumstances, for example, where a product could not be legally developed or commercialized in a country without the third-party intellectual property right or, where it is decided that it would be useful to acquire such third-party right to develop or commercialize the product, they are eligible under our collaboration agreements to decrease payments payable to us on a product-by-product basis and, in certain cases, on a country-by-country basis. Any of the foregoing events could harm our business significantly.

If we breach any of the agreements under which we license the use, development and commercialization rights to our product candidates or technology from third parties, we could lose license rights that are important to our business.

Under our existing license and other agreements, we are subject to various obligations, including diligence obligations such as development and commercialization obligations, as well as potential milestone payments and other obligations. If we fail to comply with any of these obligations or otherwise breach our license agreements, our licensing partners may have the right to terminate the applicable license in whole or in part, or convert an exclusive license to a non-exclusive license. Generally, the loss of any one of our current licenses, or license exclusivity, or any other license we may acquire in the future, could materially harm our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations.

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Confidentiality agreements with employees and third parties may not prevent unauthorized disclosure of trade secrets and other proprietary information, which would harm our competitive position.

In addition to patents, we rely on trade secrets, technical know-how and proprietary information concerning our discovery platform, business strategy and product candidates in order to protect our competitive position, which are difficult to protect. In the course of our research and development activities and our business activities, we often rely on confidentiality agreements to protect our proprietary information. Such confidentiality agreements are used, for example, when we talk to vendors of laboratory, manufacturing, pre-clinical development or clinical development goods or services or potential strategic collaborators. In addition, each of our employees and consultants is required to sign a confidentiality agreement and invention assignment agreement upon joining our company. Our employees, consultants, contractors, business partners or outside scientific collaborators might intentionally or inadvertently disclose our trade secret information in breach of these confidentiality agreements or our trade secrets may otherwise be misappropriated. Our collaborators might also have rights to publish data and we might fail to apply for patent protection prior to such publication. It is possible that a competitor will make use of such information, and that our competitive position will be compromised. In addition, to the extent that our employees, consultants or contractors use intellectual property owned by others in their work for us, disputes may arise as to the rights in related or resulting know-how and inventions. Enforcing a claim that a third party illegally obtained and is using any of our trade secrets is expensive and time consuming, and the outcome is unpredictable. In addition, courts outside the U.S. sometimes are less willing than U.S. courts to protect trade secrets. Moreover, our competitors may independently develop equivalent knowledge, methods and know-how. If we cannot maintain the confidentiality of our proprietary technology and other confidential information, then our ability to obtain patent protection or to protect our trade secret information would be jeopardized, which would adversely affect our competitive position.

Recent court decisions could increase the uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution of our patent applications and the enforcement or defense of our issued patents.

The patent positions of pharmaceutical and biopharmaceutical companies can be highly uncertain and involve complex legal and factual questions for which important legal principles remain unresolved. No consistent policy regarding the breadth of claims allowed in patents in these fields has emerged to date in the U.S. There have been recent changes regarding how patent laws are interpreted, and both the USPTO and Congress have recently made significant changes to the patent system. There have been U.S. Supreme Court decisions that now show a trend of the Supreme Court which is distinctly negative on some patents. The trend of these decisions along with resulting changes in patentability requirements being implemented by the USPTO could make it increasingly difficult for us to obtain and maintain patents on our products. We cannot accurately predict future changes in the interpretation of patent laws or changes to patent laws which might be enacted into law. Those changes may materially affect our patents, our ability to obtain patents, the costs to prosecute our patent applications and enforce our patents and/or the patents and applications of our collaborators. The patent situation in these fields outside the U.S. also has uncertainties. Changes in either the patent laws or in interpretations of patent laws in the U.S. and other countries may diminish the value of our intellectual property or narrow the scope of our patent protection. Accordingly, we cannot predict the breadth of claims that may be allowed or enforced in the patents we own or to which we have a license or third-party patents.

If we do not obtain protection under the Hatch-Waxman Act in the U.S. and similar legislation outside of the U.S. by extending the patent terms for our product candidates, our business may be materially harmed.

Depending upon the timing, duration and specifics of FDA marketing approval of our product candidates, if any, one or more U.S. patents may be eligible for limited patent term restoration under the Hatch-Waxman Act. The Hatch-Waxman Act permits a patent restoration term of up to five years as compensation for patent term lost during clinical testing of the product and the subsequent FDA regulatory review process. However, we may not be granted an extension because of, for example, failing to apply within applicable deadlines, failing to apply prior to expiration of relevant patents or otherwise failing to satisfy applicable requirements. Moreover, the applicable time period or the scope of patent protection afforded could be less than five years, or even less than we request if that number is less than five years.

If we are unable to obtain patent term extension or restoration or the term of any such extension is less than we request, the period during which we will have the right to exclusively market our product may be shortened and our competitors may obtain approval of competing products following our patent expiration, and our revenue could be reduced, possibly materially.

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We have not registered our corporate name as a trademark in all of our potential markets, and failure to secure those registrations could adversely affect our business.

Our corporate name, Xenon, has not been trademarked in each market where we operate and plan to operate. Our trademark applications for our corporate name or the name of our products may not be allowed for registration, and our registered trademarks may not be maintained or enforced. During trademark registration proceedings, we may receive rejections, which we may be unable to overcome in our responses. Third parties may also attempt to register trademarks utilizing the Xenon name on their products, and we may not be successful in preventing such usage. In addition, in the USPTO and in comparable agencies in many foreign jurisdictions, third parties are given an opportunity to oppose pending trademark applications and to seek to cancel registered trademarks. Opposition or cancellation proceedings may be filed against our trademarks, and our trademarks may not survive such proceedings. If we do not secure registrations for our trademarks, we may encounter more difficulty in enforcing them against third parties than we otherwise would.

Intellectual property litigation may lead to unfavorable publicity that harms our reputation and causes the market price of our common shares to decline.

During the course of any intellectual property litigation, there could be public announcements of the initiation of the litigation as well as results of hearings, rulings on motions, and other interim proceedings in the litigation. If securities analysts or investors regard these announcements as negative, the perceived value of our existing products, programs or intellectual property could be diminished. Accordingly, the market price of our common shares may decline. Such announcements could also harm our reputation or the market for our future products, which could have a material adverse effect on our business.

Risks Related to Ownership of Our Common Shares

The market price of our common shares may be volatile, and purchasers of our common shares could incur substantial losses.

The market price of our common shares has fluctuated in the past and is likely to be volatile in the future. As a result of this volatility, investors may experience losses on their investment in our common shares. The market price for our common shares may be influenced by many factors, including the following:

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In addition, the stock market in general, and Nasdaq and the biopharmaceutical industry in particular, have from time to time experienced volatility that often has been unrelated to the operating performance of the underlying companies. The COVID-19 pandemic, for example, resulted in significant volatility. These broad market and industry fluctuations may adversely affect the market price of our common shares, regardless of our operating performance. In several recent situations where the market price of a stock has been volatile, holders of that stock have instituted securities class action litigation against the company that issued the stock. If any of our shareholders were to bring a lawsuit against us, the defense and disposition of the lawsuit could be costly and divert the time and attention of our management and harm our operating results.

Future sales of our common shares in the public market could cause the market price of our common shares to fall.

The market price of our common shares could decline as a result of sales of a large number of our common shares or the perception that these sales could occur. These sales, or the possibility that these sales may occur, also might make it more difficult for us to sell equity securities in the future at a time and at a price that we deem appropriate.

In addition, in the future, we may issue additional common shares, preferred shares, or other equity or debt securities convertible into common shares in connection with a financing, collaboration agreement, acquisition, litigation settlement, employee arrangements or otherwise. Any such issuance, including any issuances pursuant to our “at-the-market” equity offering program under our sales agreement with Jefferies and Stifel, could result in substantial dilution to our existing shareholders and could cause the market price of our common shares to decline.

Provisions in our corporate charter documents and Canadian law could make an acquisition of us, which may be beneficial to our shareholders, more difficult and may prevent attempts by our shareholders to replace or remove our current management and/or limit the market price of our common shares.

Provisions in our articles and our by-laws, as well as certain provisions under the Canada Business Corporations Act, or CBCA, and applicable Canadian securities laws, may discourage, delay or prevent a merger, acquisition, tender offer or other change in control of us that shareholders may consider favorable, including transactions in which they might otherwise receive a premium for their common shares. These provisions could also limit the price that investors might be willing to pay in the future for our common shares, thereby depressing the market price of our common shares. In addition, because our board of directors is responsible for appointing the members of our management team, these provisions may frustrate or prevent any attempts by our shareholders to replace or remove our current management by making it more difficult for shareholders to replace members of our board of directors. Among other things, these provisions include the following:

Any provision in our articles, by-laws, under the CBCA or under any applicable Canadian securities law that has the effect of delaying or deterring a change in control could limit the opportunity for our shareholders to receive a premium for their common shares, and could also affect the price that some investors are willing to pay for our common shares.

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U.S. civil liabilities may not be enforceable against us, our directors, or our officers.

We are governed by the CBCA and our principal place of business is in Canada. Many of our directors and officers reside outside of the U.S., and all or a substantial portion of their assets as well as all or a substantial portion of our assets are located outside the U.S. As a result, it may be difficult for investors to effect service of process within the U.S. upon us and certain of our directors and officers or to enforce judgments obtained against us or such persons, in U.S. courts, in any action, including actions predicated upon the civil liability provisions of U.S. federal securities laws or any other laws of the U.S. Additionally, rights predicated solely upon civil liability provisions of U.S. federal securities laws or any other laws of the U.S. may not be enforceable in original actions, or actions to enforce judgments obtained in U.S. courts, brought in Canadian courts, including courts in the Province of British Columbia.

We are governed by the corporate and securities laws of Canada which in some cases have a different effect on shareholders than the corporate laws of Delaware and U.S. securities laws.

We are governed by the CBCA and other relevant laws, which may affect the rights of shareholders differently than those of a company governed by the laws of a U.S. jurisdiction, and may, together with our charter documents, have the effect of delaying, deferring or discouraging another party from acquiring control of our company by means of a tender offer, a proxy contest or otherwise, or may affect the price an acquiring party would be willing to offer in such an instance. The material differences between the CBCA and Delaware General Corporation Law, or DGCL, that may have the greatest such effect include, but are not limited to, the following: (i) for material corporate transactions (such as mergers and amalgamations, other extraordinary corporate transactions or amendments to our articles) the CBCA generally requires a two-thirds majority vote by shareholders, whereas DGCL generally only requires a majority vote; and (ii) under the CBCA holders of 5% or more of our shares that carry the right to vote at a meeting of shareholders can requisition a special meeting of shareholders, whereas such right does not exist under the DGCL.

We are a large accelerated filer and may no longer provide scaled disclosures as a smaller reporting company beginning with our Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q for the quarter ending March 31, 2022, which will increase our costs and demands on management.

We are a large accelerated filer and beginning with our Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q for the quarter ending March 31, 2022, we may no longer provide scaled disclosure as a “smaller reporting company” as defined under the Exchange Act.

As a smaller reporting company, we had the option to take advantage of certain exemptions from various reporting requirements that are applicable to other public companies, including, but not limited to, reduced disclosure obligations regarding executive compensation in our periodic reports and proxy statements.

In addition, as a non-accelerated filer and smaller reporting company, we have availed ourselves of the exemption from the requirement that our independent registered public accounting firm attest to the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting under Section 404(b) of the Sarbanes Oxley Act, or Section 404. However, we may no longer avail ourselves of this exemption as a large accelerated filer, which will increase our expenses and require a significant amount of management time.

Future sales and issuances of our common shares, preferred shares, or rights to purchase common shares, including warrants or pursuant to our equity incentive plans, could cause shareholders to incur dilution and could cause the market price of our common shares to fall.

As of December 31, 2021, stock options to purchase 5,638,232 of our common shares with a weighted-average exercise price of $12.55 per common share were outstanding, a warrant to purchase 40,000 of our common shares with a weighted-average exercise price of $9.79 per common share was outstanding, 1,016,000 of our Series 1 Preferred Shares were outstanding, which are convertible into our common shares on a one-for-one basis at the option of the holder, subject to certain ownership limitations following a requested conversion, and pre-funded warrants to purchase 2,775,996 of our common shares with an exercise price of $0.0001 per share. The exercise of any of these stock options or warrants or conversion of the remaining Series 1 Preferred Shares would result in dilution to current common shareholders. Further, because we anticipate the need to raise additional capital to fund our clinical development programs, we may in the future sell substantial amounts of common shares, preferred shares, pre-funded warrants or other securities convertible into or exchangeable for common shares. Pursuant to our equity incentive plans, our compensation committee (or a subset or delegate thereof) is authorized to grant equity-based incentive awards to our employees, directors and consultants. Future stock option grants and issuances of common shares under our share-based compensation plans may have an adverse effect on the market price of our common shares.

Any future issuances of common shares, preferred shares, or securities such as warrants, notes, or preferred shares that are convertible into, exercisable or exchangeable for, our common shares, would have a dilutive effect on the voting and economic interests of our existing shareholders.

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We are at risk of securities class action litigation.

In the past, securities class action litigation has often been brought against a company following a decline in the market price of its securities. This risk is especially relevant for us because biotechnology companies have experienced significant share price volatility in recent years. If we face such litigation, it could result in substantial costs and a diversion of management’s attention and resources, which could harm our business. In addition, an increase in litigation against biotechnology companies may make it more difficult and more expensive for us to obtain director and officer liability insurance, and we may be required to accept reduced policy limits and coverage or incur substantially higher costs to obtain the same or similar coverage.

Our management team has broad discretion as to the use of the net proceeds from public and private equity and debt financings and the investment of these proceeds may not yield a favorable return. We may invest the proceeds in ways with which our shareholders disagree.

We have broad discretion in the application of any net proceeds we have received or may receive pursuant to our October 2021 and March 2021 public offerings of common shares and pre-funded warrants to purchase common shares, our “at-the-market” equity offering program with Jefferies and Stifel, our January 2020 public offering of common shares, as well as the net proceeds to us from previous equity and debt financings. Shareholders may not agree with our decisions, and our use of the proceeds and our existing cash and cash equivalents and marketable securities may not improve our results of operation or enhance the value of our common shares. Our failure to apply these funds effectively could have a material adverse effect on our business, delay the development of our product candidates and cause the market price of our common shares to decline. In addition, until the net proceeds are used, they may be placed in investments that do not produce significant income or that may lose value.

We do not anticipate paying any cash dividends on our common shares in the foreseeable future.

We do not currently intend to pay any cash dividends on our common shares in the foreseeable future. We currently intend to retain all of our future earnings, if any, to finance the growth and development of our business. In addition, the terms of any future debt agreements may preclude us from paying dividends. As a result, capital appreciation, if any, of our common shares may be investors’ sole source of gain for the foreseeable future.

There is no public market for our outstanding pre-funded warrants or our Series 1 Preferred Shares.

There is no public trading market for our outstanding pre-funded warrants or our Series 1 Preferred Shares and we do not expect a market to develop. In addition, we do not intend to list the outstanding pre-funded warrants or our Series 1 Preferred Shares on the Nasdaq Global Market or any other national securities exchange or nationally recognized trading system. Without an active trading market, the liquidity of the outstanding pre-funded warrants and our Series 1 Preferred Shares will be limited.

General Risk Factors

Unstable market and economic conditions may have serious adverse consequences on our business and financial condition.

Global credit and financial markets have at times experienced extreme disruptions, including most recently in connection with the novel coronavirus, or COVID-19 pandemic, characterized by increased market volatility, declines in consumer confidence, declines in economic growth, increases in unemployment rates, and uncertainty about economic stability. If another such disruption in credit and financial markets and deterioration of confidence in economic conditions occurs, our business may be adversely affected. If the equity and credit markets were to deteriorate significantly in the future, it may make any necessary equity or debt financing more difficult to complete, more costly, and more dilutive. Failure to secure any necessary financing in a timely manner and on favorable terms could have a material adverse effect on our growth strategy, financial performance and the market price of our common shares could require us to delay or abandon development or commercialization plans. In addition, there is a risk that one or more of our current collaborators, service providers, manufacturers and other partners would not survive or be able to meet their commitments to us under such circumstances, which could directly affect our ability to attain our operating goals on schedule and on budget.

If we fail to maintain an effective system of internal control over financial reporting, we may not be able to accurately report our financial results or prevent fraud. As a result, shareholders could lose confidence in our financial and other public reporting, which would harm our business and the market price of our common shares.

Effective internal control over financial reporting is necessary for us to provide reliable financial reports and, together with adequate disclosure controls and procedures, are designed to prevent fraud. Any failure to implement required new or improved controls, or difficulties encountered in their implementation could cause us to fail to meet our reporting obligations.

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We are required to disclose changes made in our internal controls and procedures on a quarterly basis and our management is required to assess the effectiveness of these controls annually. We are also required to obtain an independent assessment of the effectiveness of our internal controls which could detect problems that our management’s assessment might not. Going forward, even if our management concludes that our internal control over financial reporting is effective, our independent registered public accounting firm may conclude that there are material weaknesses or significant deficiencies with respect to our internal controls or the level at which our internal controls are documented, designed, implemented or reviewed. If we or our independent registered public accounting firm identifies deficiencies in our internal control over financial reporting that are deemed to be material weaknesses or that may require prospective or retroactive changes to our financial statements, investors may lose confidence in our reported financial information, which could cause the market price of our common shares to decline and we could be subject to sanctions or investigations by the SEC or other regulatory authorities, which would require additional financial and management resources. Irrespective of compliance with Section 404, any failure of our internal control over financial reporting could have a material adverse effect on our stated operating results and harm our reputation.

Environmental, social and governance matters may impact our business and reputation.

Companies are increasingly being judged by their performance on a variety of environmental, social and governance, or ESG, matters, which are considered to contribute to the long-term sustainability of companies’ performance.

A variety of organizations measure the performance of companies on such ESG topics, and the results of these assessments are widely publicized. In addition, investment in funds that specialize in companies that perform well in such assessments are increasingly popular, and major institutional investors have publicly emphasized the importance of such ESG measures to their investment decisions. Topics taken into account in such assessments include, among others, the role of the company’s board of directors in supervising various ESG issues and board diversity.

In light of investors’ increased focus on ESG matters, there can be no certainty that we will manage such issues successfully, or that we will successfully meet expectations as to our proper role. Any failure or perceived failure by us in this regard could have a material adverse effect on our reputation and on our business, share price, financial condition, or results of operations, including the sustainability of our business over time.

If securities or industry analysts do not publish research reports about our business, or if they issue an adverse opinion about our business, the market price of our common shares and the trading volume of our common shares could decline.

The trading market for our common shares is influenced by the research and reports that securities or industry analysts publish about us or our business. If too few securities or industry analysts cover our company, the market price of our common shares would likely be negatively impacted. If securities and industry analysts who cover us downgrade our common shares or publish inaccurate or unfavorable research about our business, the market price of our common shares would likely decline. If one or more of these analysts cease coverage of our company or fail to publish reports on us regularly, demand for our common shares could decrease, which might cause the market price of our common shares and the trading volume of our common shares to decline.

An active trading market for our common shares may not be maintained.

Our common shares are currently traded on Nasdaq, but we can provide no assurance that we will be able to maintain an active trading market on Nasdaq or any other exchange in the future. If an active market for our common shares is not maintained, it may be difficult for our shareholders to sell the common shares they have purchased without depressing the market price for the common shares or at all. Further, an inactive market may also impair our ability to raise capital by selling additional common shares and may impair our ability to enter into strategic collaborations or acquire companies or products by using our common shares as consideration.

Nasdaq may delist our securities from its exchange, which could limit investors’ ability to make transactions in our securities and subject us to additional trading restrictions.

Our common shares are listed on Nasdaq under the trading symbol “XENE.” Our securities may fail to meet the continued listing requirements to be listed on Nasdaq. If Nasdaq delists our common shares from trading on its exchange, we could face significant material adverse consequences, including:

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None.

Our headquarters are located in Burnaby, British Columbia, where we currently occupy approximately 51,404 square feet of office and laboratory space, and will be increased to approximately 53,023 square feet commencing on July 1, 2022. The term of the lease expires in June 2032. We currently pay an aggregate of approximately $132,932 per month in base rent, property tax, common area maintenance fees and management fees, and the landlord holds a security deposit equal to approximately $71,180.

We believe that our existing facilities are adequate to meet our business requirements for the near-term and that additional space will be available on commercially reasonable terms, if required.

From time to time, we may become involved in legal proceedings or be subject to claims arising in the ordinary course of our business. We are not presently a party to any legal proceedings that, in the opinion of our management, would reasonably be expected to have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, operating results or cash flows if determined adversely to us. Regardless of the outcome, litigation can have an adverse impact on us because of defense and settlement costs, diversion of management resources and other factors.

Not applicable.

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PART II

Market Information

Our common shares have been traded on the Nasdaq Global Market since November 5, 2014 under the symbol “XENE.” On February 25, 2022, the last reported sale price of our common shares was $31.04 per share.

Holders

As of February 25, 2022, there were approximately 104 holders of record of our common shares. The actual number of shareholders is greater than this number of record holders and includes shareholders who are beneficial owners but whose common shares are held in street name by brokers and other nominees.

Dividends

We have never declared or paid any cash dividends on our common shares or any other securities. We currently anticipate that we will retain all available funds and any future earnings, if any, in the foreseeable future for use in the operation of our business and do not currently anticipate paying cash dividends in the foreseeable future. Payment of future cash dividends, if any, will be at the discretion of the board of directors, subject to applicable law and will depend on various factors, including our financial condition, operating results, current and anticipated cash needs, the requirements of current or then-existing debt instruments and other factors the board of directors deems relevant.

Canadian withholding tax at a rate of 25% (subject to reduction under the provisions of any applicable income tax treaty or convention to which Canada is a signatory) will be payable on the gross amount of a dividend on our common shares paid or credited, or deemed to be paid or credited, to a holder of our common shares who, for purposes of the Income Tax Act (Canada), is not (and is not deemed to be) resident in Canada, or a Non-Resident of Canada Holder. The Canadian withholding tax will be deducted directly by us or our paying agent from the amount of the dividend otherwise payable and remitted to the Receiver General of Canada. The rate of withholding tax applicable to a dividend paid on our common shares to a Non‑Resident of Canada Holder who is a resident of the U.S. for purposes of the Canada‑U.S. Tax Convention (1980), or the Convention, is the beneficial owner of the dividend and qualifies for the full benefits of the Convention will generally be reduced to 15% or, if such a Non-Resident of Canada Holder is a company that owns (or, for purposes of the Convention, is considered to own) at least 10% of our voting shares, to 5%. Not all persons who are residents of the U.S. for purposes of the Convention will qualify for the benefits of the Convention. A Non-Resident of Canada Holder who is a resident of the U.S. is advised to consult his or her tax advisor in this regard. The rate of withholding tax on dividends is also reduced under other bilateral income tax treaties to which Canada is a signatory.

 Stock Performance Graph

We previously qualified as a “smaller reporting company,” as defined in Rule 12b-2 under the Exchange Act, and have been permitted to rely, and have relied, on the reduced disclosure requirements available to smaller reporting companies, including not being required to provide the information required by this item pursuant to Item 201(e) of Regulation S-K. Our ability to rely on the reduced disclosure requirements available to smaller reporting companies will cease after the filing of our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2021, including those portions of our definitive proxy statement relating to our 2022 annual meeting of shareholders that will be incorporated by reference into Part III of the Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Recent Sales of Unregistered Securities

None.

Issuer Repurchases of Equity Securities

None.

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You should read the following discussion and analysis together with our consolidated financial statements and notes included elsewhere in this Annual Report. The following discussion contains forward-looking statements that involve risks and uncertainties. Our actual results could differ from those expressed or implied in any forward-looking statements as a result of various factors, including those set forth under the caption Part I, Item 1A — “Risk Factors.” Throughout this discussion, unless the context specifies or implies otherwise, the terms “Xenon,” “we,” “us,” and “our” refer to Xenon Pharmaceuticals Inc. and its subsidiary.

Overview

We are a clinical stage biopharmaceutical company committed to developing innovative therapeutics to improve the lives of patients with neurological disorders. We are advancing a novel product pipeline of neurology-focused therapies to address areas of high unmet medical need, with a focus on epilepsy.

Proprietary Programs

XEN1101

XEN1101 is a differentiated Kv7 potassium channel opener being developed for the treatment of epilepsy and major depressive disorder, or MDD. In October 2021, we announced positive results from our Phase 2b X-TOLE clinical trial, which evaluated the clinical efficacy, safety and tolerability of XEN1101 administered as an adjunctive treatment for adult patients with focal epilepsy. The topline data showed all primary and secondary seizure reduction endpoints were statistically significant across all dose groups, including the primary endpoint of median reduction from baseline in monthly seizure frequency and in the key secondary endpoint of patients with at least a 50% reduction in monthly focal seizure frequency from baseline, with p-values of <0.001 for both the 20 mg and 25 mg dose groups.

We anticipate participating in an “end-of-Phase 2” meeting with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, or FDA, in the second quarter of this year to support the initiation of our Phase 3 XEN1101 clinical program in adult patients with focal epilepsy, estimated in the second half of the year. The X-TOLE open-label extension, which has been extended to three years, is expected to continue to generate important long-term data for XEN1101. We are also evaluating other potential epilepsy indications for the future development of XEN1101.

In addition, we are collaborating with the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai to conduct an investigator-sponsored Phase 2 proof-of-concept, multi-site, randomized, parallel-arm, placebo-controlled clinical trial of XEN1101 for the treatment of MDD, with patient enrollment underway. In addition, an investigational new drug, or IND, application has been submitted to the FDA to support our plans for a larger company-sponsored clinical study in MDD with XEN1101, which is expected to be initiated in the first half of 2022, pending acceptance of our regulatory filings.

XEN496

XEN496, a Kv7 potassium channel opener, is a proprietary pediatric formulation of the active ingredient ezogabine being developed for the treatment of KCNQ2 developmental and epileptic encephalopathy, or KCNQ2-DEE. A Phase 3 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel group, multicenter clinical trial, called the “EPIK” study, is underway to evaluate the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of XEN496 administered as adjunctive treatment in approximately 40 pediatric patients aged one month to less than six years with KCNQ2-DEE. We anticipate that the EPIK study will be completed in the first half of 2023.

Partnered Programs

NBI-921352

We have an ongoing collaboration with Neurocrine Biosciences to develop treatments for epilepsy. Neurocrine Biosciences has an exclusive license to XEN901, now known as NBI-921352, a selective Nav1.6 sodium channel inhibitor. Neurocrine Biosciences is conducting a Phase 2 clinical trial evaluating NBI-921352 in adult patients with focal onset seizures, with data expected in 2023. In addition, a Phase 2 clinical trial is underway evaluating NBI-921352 in patients aged between 2 and 21 years with SCN8A developmental and epileptic encephalopathy, or SCN8A-DEE. Pursuant to the terms of the agreement, we have the potential to receive certain clinical, regulatory, and commercial milestone payments, as well as future sales royalties.

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PCRX301 (formerly FX301)

In November 2021, Pacira BioSciences, Inc. completed its acquisition of Flexion Therapeutics, Inc., or Flexion, which included Flexion’s global rights to develop and commercialize XEN402, a Nav1.7 inhibitor also known as funapide. XEN402 has been formulated for extended release from a thermosensitive hydrogel and is now known as PCRX301 (previously FX301). A Phase 1b proof-of-concept trial is underway evaluating the safety and tolerability of PCRX301 administered as a single-dose, popliteal fossa block in patients undergoing bunionectomy, with data now anticipated in the second quarter of this year. Pursuant to the terms of the agreement, we have the potential to receive certain clinical, regulatory, and commercial milestone payments, as well as future sales royalties.

We have funded our operations primarily through the sale of equity securities, funding received from our licensees and collaborators, and debt financing. For the year ended December 31, 2021, we recognized revenue of $18.4 million compared to $32.2 million for the year ended December 31, 2020, in connection with our agreements with Neurocrine Biosciences and Pacira BioSciences. We had a net loss of $78.9 million for the year ended December 31, 2021 and an accumulated deficit of $357.4 million as of December 31, 2021, from expenses incurred in connection with our research and development programs and from general and administrative costs associated with our operations.

We do not generate any royalty revenue from product sales, and do not otherwise anticipate generating revenue from product sales for the foreseeable future, if ever. We expect that our revenue in the near term will be substantially dependent on our collaboration agreements. Given the uncertain nature of clinical development of our current and future product candidates and the commercialization of current and future products, we cannot predict when or whether we will receive further milestone payments under our current or future collaboration agreements or whether we will be able to report either revenue or net income in future years.

We expect to continue to incur significant expenses and operating losses for at least the next 12 to 24 months. We anticipate that our expenses will increase as we:

Recent Developments

Subsequent to year-end, in January 2022, we announced that our collaboration to develop treatments for epilepsy with Neurocrine Biosciences achieved a regulatory milestone. The FDA accepted Neurocrine’s protocol amendment that expands the study population to include subjects aged between 2 and 11 years in the ongoing Phase 2 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study to evaluate the efficacy, safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetics of NBI-921352 in pediatric patients with SCN8A-DEE. Pursuant to the collaboration agreement, we received an aggregate of $15.0 million from Neurocrine Biosciences in the form of a $6.75 million payment in cash and a $8.25 million equity investment at a per share price of $31.855, calculated as a 15% premium to our 30-day trailing volume weighted average price. For additional information, please see the section of this report titled “Business — Collaborations, Commercial and License Agreements — License and Collaboration Agreement with Neurocrine Biosciences, Inc.”

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Financial Operations Overview

Revenue

To date, our revenue has been primarily derived from collaboration and licensing agreements. We do not generate any royalty revenue from product sales, and do not otherwise anticipate generating revenue from product sales for the foreseeable future, if ever. Over our history, we have entered into several collaboration agreements and our current collaboration and licensing agreements are described in “Business — Collaborations, Commercial and License Agreements” and “Note 12” of the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

The following table is a summary of revenue recognized from our current collaboration and licensing agreements for the years ended December 31, 2021 and 2020 (in thousands):

  Pursuant to the terms of our license and collaboration agreement with Neurocrine Biosciences, we received an upfront cash payment of $30.0 million and a $20.0 million equity investment in our common shares at the inception of the agreement in December 2019. The equity investment was measured at fair value on the date of issuance and the resulting premium, together with the upfront cash payment and variable consideration which is probable that a significant reversal of the cumulative revenue recognized will not occur, is the transaction price of the arrangement at the inception of the agreement for allocation to the performance obligations. The allocation was based on the relative estimated standalone selling prices of each obligation under the agreement including: (i) an exclusive license to NBI-921352 with associated technology and know-how transfer, (ii) an exclusive license to pre-clinical compounds for development, XEN393, XPC’535 and XPC’391, collectively referred to as the development track candidates, or the DTCs, with associated know-how transfer, and (iii) development services under the initial development program for the DTCs. In September 2021, based on the regulatory approval of a clinical trial application in Europe for NBI-921352 for focal-onset seizures in adults, we received an aggregate milestone payment of $10.0 million in the form of $4.5 million cash and a $5.5 million equity investment in our common shares. The equity investment was measured at fair value of $4.7 million on the date of issuance and the resulting premium of $0.8 million, with the cash payment of $4.5 million, was recognized as revenue in the period. In the year ended December 31, 2021, we also recognized $3.7 million of the transaction price allocated to performance obligations (i), (ii) and (iii), compared to $26.8 million for the year ended December 31, 2020. Performance obligations (i) and (ii) were completed as of December 31, 2020. Performance obligation (iii) is expected to be completed by Q1 2022. Research and development services are recognized into revenue at fair market value as the services are rendered.

In the year ended December 31 2021, we recognized revenue of $3.0 million in connection with our agreement with Pacira BioSciences for the global rights to develop and commercialize PCRX301 which included a $1.0 million milestone for the clearance of an investigational new drug application by the FDA and a $2.0 million milestone for the initiation of a Phase 1b clinical trial. No revenue was recognized for the year ended December 31, 2020 in connection with our agreement with Pacira BioSciences.

As our other internal and partnered products are in various stages of clinical and pre-clinical development, we do not expect to generate any revenue from product sales for at least the next several years. We expect that any revenue for the next several years will be derived from milestone payments and research and development funding under our current collaboration agreements and any additional collaboration agreements that we may enter into in the future. We cannot provide any assurance as to the extent or timing of future milestone payments or royalty payments or that we will receive any future payments at all.

We expect that any revenue we generate will fluctuate quarter to quarter as a function of the timing and amount of milestones and other payments from our existing collaborations and any future collaborations.

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Operating Expenses

The following table summarizes our operating expenses for the years ended December 31, 2021 and 2020 (in thousands):

Research and Development Expenses

Research and development expenses represent costs incurred to conduct research and development of our proprietary product candidates, including any acquired or in-licensed product candidates or technology, and costs to support our partnered product candidates.

Research and development expenses consist of costs incurred in performing research and development activities, including salary, related benefits and stock-based compensation for employees engaged in scientific research and development, third-party contract costs relating to research, formulation, process development and manufacturing, pre-clinical studies and clinical trial activities, third-party acquisition, license and collaboration fees, laboratory consumables and allocated facility-related and information technology costs.

Project-specific expenses reflect costs directly attributable to our clinical development candidates for which we have incurred significant expenses. All remaining research and development expenses are reflected in pre-clinical, discovery and other internal program expenses. At any given time, we have several active early-stage research and drug discovery programs. Our personnel and infrastructure are typically deployed over multiple projects and are not directly linked to any individual internal early-stage research or drug discovery program. Therefore, we do not maintain financial information for our internal early-stage research and internal drug discovery programs on a project-specific basis.

We expense all research and development costs as incurred. We expect that our research and development expenses will increase in the future as we advance our proprietary product candidates through clinical development, advance our internal drug discovery programs into pre-clinical development and continue our early-stage research. The increase in expense will likely include added personnel and third-party contracts related to research, formulation, process development and manufacturing, pre-clinical studies and clinical trial activities as well as third-party acquisition, license and collaboration fees and laboratory consumables.

Clinical development timelines, likelihood of regulatory approval, and commercialization and associated costs are uncertain, difficult to estimate, and can vary significantly. We anticipate determining which research and development projects to pursue as well as the level of funding available for each project based on the scientific research and pre-clinical and clinical results of each product candidate and related regulatory action. We expect our research and development expenses to continue to represent our largest category of operating expenses for at least the next 12 to 24 months.

General and Administrative Expenses

General and administrative expenses consist primarily of salary, related benefits and stock-based compensation of our executive, finance, legal, business development, commercial and administrative functions, travel expenses, allocated facility-related and information technology costs not otherwise included in research and development expenses, director compensation, director’s and officer’s insurance premiums, investor relations costs, recruitment costs and professional fees for auditing, tax and legal services, including legal expenses for intellectual property protection.

We expect that general and administrative expenses will increase in the future as we expand our operating activities to support increased research and development activities and the potential commercialization of our product candidates.

Other Income (Expense)

Interest Income. Interest income consists of income earned on our cash and investment balances. We anticipate that our interest income will continue to fluctuate depending on our cash and investment balances and interest rates.

Unrealized fair value gain (loss) on marketable securities. Marketable securities are recorded at quoted prices in active markets, which approximate the fair value. Unrealized fair value gain (loss) on marketable securities is related to changes in market pricing on the investments during the period. We anticipate that unrealized fair value gain (loss) on marketable securities will continue to fluctuate depending on our investment balance and interest rates.

Interest Expense. Interest expense consists of accrual of the final payment fee, amortization of debt discounts, and interest charged on our borrowings with Silicon Valley Bank. In May 2020, we repaid the total outstanding term loan balance ahead of the maturity date.

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Foreign Exchange Gain (Loss). Net foreign exchange gains and losses consisted of gains and losses from the impact of foreign exchange fluctuations on our monetary assets and liabilities that are denominated in currencies other than the U.S. dollar (principally the Canadian dollar). We will continue to incur substantial expenses in Canadian dollars and will remain subject to risks associated with foreign currency fluctuations.

Loss on repayment of term loan. In May 2020, we repaid the total outstanding balance of our term loan with Silicon Valley Bank ahead of the maturity date. We recorded a one-time loss of $1.0 million on the repayment of the term loan, inclusive of repayment fees.

Critical Accounting Policies and Significant Judgments and Estimates

Our management’s discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations is based on our consolidated financial statements, which have been prepared in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles in the U.S., or U.S. GAAP. The preparation of our consolidated financial statements requires us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and the revenue and expenses incurred during the reported periods. We base estimates on our historical experience, known trends and various other factors that we believe are reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying value of assets and liabilities that are not apparent from other sources. Actual results may differ from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions.

The significant accounting policies that we believe to be most critical in fully understanding and evaluating our financial results are revenue recognition, research and development costs and stock-based compensation. For additional information, see “Note 3” of the consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Revenue recognition:

Revenue recognition is a critical accounting estimate due to the magnitude and nature of the revenues we receive.

Our primary sources of revenue are derived from non-refundable upfront payments, funding for research and development services, milestone payments, and royalties under various collaboration agreements.

In contracts where we have more than one performance obligation to provide our customer with goods or services, each performance obligation is evaluated to determine whether it is distinct. The consideration under the contract is then allocated between the distinct performance obligations based on their respective relative standalone selling prices. The estimated standalone selling price of each deliverable reflects our best estimate of what the selling price would be if the deliverable was regularly sold on a standalone basis and is determined by reference to market rates for the good or service when sold to others or by using an adjusted market assessment approach if selling price on a standalone basis is not available. We generally recognize revenue from non-refundable upfront payments over the estimated term of the performance obligation or period in which the underlying benefit is transferred to the customer. We evaluate the measure of progress each reporting period and, if necessary, adjust the measure of performance and related revenue recognition.

The consideration allocated to each distinct performance obligation is recognized as revenue when control is transferred to our customer for the related goods or services. Consideration in exchange for research and development services performed by us on behalf of the licensee is recognized upon performance of such activities at rates consistent with prevailing market rates. Consideration associated with at-risk substantive performance milestones, including sales-based milestones, is recognized as revenue when we determine it is probable that a significant reversal of the cumulative revenue recognized will not occur. At the end of each subsequent reporting period, we re-evaluate the probability of achievement of such milestones, and if necessary, adjust our estimate of the overall transaction price. Sales-based royalties received in connection with licenses of intellectual property are subject to a specific exception in the revenue standards, whereby the consideration is not included in the transaction price and recognized in revenue until the customer’s subsequent sales or usages occur.

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Research and development costs:

Research and development costs is a critical accounting policy due to the magnitude of the costs and the requirement to determine the proportionate performance of vendors to calculate third-party accrued and prepaid research and development expenses.

We incur development activity costs, such as pre-clinical costs, manufacturing costs and clinical trial costs paid to contract research organizations, contract development and manufacturing organizations, investigators and other vendors who conduct certain product development activities on our behalf. The amount of expenses recognized in a period related to service agreements is based on the work performed using the accrual basis of accounting. Clinical trial expenses represent a significant component of research and development expenses and we outsource a significant portion of these activities to third party contract research organizations. Third-party clinical trial expenses include investigator fees, site costs, clinical research organization costs and other trial-related vendor costs. Vendors, including contract research organizations, generally provide estimates of proportionate performance to allow us to determine an appropriate accrual. Payments made to third parties under these arrangements in advance of the receipt of the related services are recorded as prepaid expenses until the services are rendered.

Stock-based compensation:

Stock-based compensation is a critical accounting estimate due to the magnitude of and the many assumptions that are required to calculate stock-based compensation expense.

We grant stock options to employees, consultants, directors and officers pursuant to our stock option plans. Compensation expense is recorded using the fair value method. We calculate the fair value of stock options using the Black-Scholes option-pricing model which requires that certain assumptions, including the expected life of the option and expected volatility of the stock, be estimated at the time that the options are granted. The expected volatility is based on the historical volatility of our common shares calculated based on a period of time commensurate with the expected term assumption. The expected term of our stock options has been determined utilizing our available historical data and we recognize forfeitures as they occur. We amortize the fair value of stock options using the straight-line method over the vesting period of the options.

Results of Operations

Comparison of Years Ended December 31, 2021 and 2020

The following table summarizes the results of our operations for the years ended December 31, 2021 and 2020 together with changes in those items (in thousands):

Revenue

Revenue decreased by $13.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2021 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2020. Revenue for the year ended December 31, 2021 related to recognition of $5.3 million of milestone revenue, $3.7 million of deferred revenue as well as $6.5 million for research and development services under our license and collaboration agreement with Neurocrine Biosciences, as compared to recognition of $26.8 million of deferred revenue and $5.4 million for research and development services under this agreement for the year ended December 31, 2020. Revenue for the year ended December 31, 2021 also included $3.0 million in milestone revenue recognized in connection with our agreement with Pacira BioSciences, whereas no revenue was recognized in connection with this agreement for the year ended December 31, 2020.

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Research and Development Expenses

The following table summarizes research and development expenses for the years ended December 31, 2021 and 2020 together with changes in those items (in thousands):

Research and development expenses increased by $24.9 million for the year ended December 31, 2021 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2020. The increases were primarily attributable to increased spending on our clinical development product candidates XEN1101 and XEN496 as well as increased spending on our pre-clinical, discovery and other internal programs.

General and Administrative Expenses

The following table summarizes general and administrative expenses for the years ended December 31, 2021 and 2020 together with changes in those items (in thousands):

General and administrative expenses increased by $9.0 million for the year ended December 31, 2021 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2020. The increase was primarily attributable to higher salaries and benefits due to increased headcount to support our expanding research and development activities, increased stock-based compensation expense due to an increase in the number of options granted at a higher fair value, increased market research costs and increased legal fees for intellectual property protection.

Other Income

The following table summarizes our other income (expense) for the years ended December 31, 2021 and 2020 together with changes in those items (in thousands):

Other income decreased by $2.1 million for the year ended December 31, 2021 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2020. The decrease was primarily driven by a decrease in interest income due to a decline in realized market yields on investments and an  unrealized loss on the fair value of marketable securities of $0.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2021 due to changes in market yields on investments. The decrease in other income was also attributable to a decrease in the foreign exchange gain for the year ended December 31, 2021 as compared to the year ended December 31, 2020, largely due to a 0.7% increase as compared to a 2% increase in the value of the Canadian dollar, respectively. These were partially offset by a decrease in interest expense and a one-time loss of $1.0 million due to the repayment of our term loan in May 2020.  

Liquidity and Capital Resources

Sources of Liquidity

To date, we have financed our operations primarily through funding received from collaboration and license agreements, private placements of our common and preferred shares, public offerings of our common shares and pre-funded warrants, and debt financing. As of December 31, 2021, we had cash and cash equivalents and marketable securities of $551.8 million.

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Except for any obligations of our collaborators to make milestone payments and research and development funding under our agreements with them, we do not have any committed external sources of capital. Until such time as we can generate substantial product revenue, if ever, we expect to finance our cash needs through a combination of collaboration agreements and equity or debt financings. For example, we have previously entered into an “at-the-market” equity offering sales agreement in August 2020, amended as of March 2022, with Jefferies LLC, or Jefferies, and Stifel, Nicolaus & Company, Incorporated, or Stifel, pursuant to which we may sell our common shares from time to time. As of December 31, 2021, we had sold an aggregate of 733,000 common shares for proceeds of $10.7 million, net of commissions paid and transaction expenses, pursuant to the sales agreement. In January 2022, pursuant to the terms of our license and collaboration agreement with Neurocrine Biosciences, we received a cash payment of $6.75 million and we issued 258,986 common shares to Neurocrine Biosciences for an aggregate purchase price of $8.25 million. In addition, in October 2021, we completed an underwritten public offering of 10,000,000 common shares, including 1,525,423 common shares sold upon the full exercise of the underwriters’ over-allotment option, at a public offering price of $29.50 per common share, and pre-funded warrants to purchase 1,694,915 common shares at $29.4999 per pre-funded warrant, with each pre-funded warrant having an exercise price of $0.0001. The public offering was completed on October 8, 2021, and we received proceeds of $323.9 million, net of underwriting discounts and commissions and offering expenses. In September 2021, pursuant to the terms of our license and collaboration agreement with Neurocrine Biosciences, we received a cash payment of $4.5 million and we issued 275,337 common shares to Neurocrine Biosciences for an aggregate purchase price of $5.5 million. In March 2021, we entered into an underwriting agreement with Jefferies and Stifel relating to an underwritten public offering of 5,135,135 common shares, including 810,810 shares sold upon the full exercise of the underwriters’ option to purchase additional shares, and pre-funded warrants to purchase 1,081,081 common shares. The common shares were offered at a public offering price of $18.50 per common share and the pre-funded warrants were offered at a price of $18.4999 per pre-funded warrant, for proceeds of $107.9 million, net of underwriting discounts, commissions and offering expenses.

Funding Requirements

We have incurred significant operating losses since inception. We had a $78.9 million net loss for the year ended December 31, 2021 and an accumulated deficit of $357.4 million from inception through December 31, 2021. We expect to continue to incur significant expenses in excess of our revenue and expect to incur operating losses over the next several years. Our net losses may fluctuate significantly from quarter to quarter and year to year. We expect to incur significant expenses and increasing operating losses for the foreseeable future as we continue our research and pre-clinical and clinical development of our product candidates; expand the scope of our studies for our current and prospective product candidates; initiate additional pre-clinical, clinical or other studies for our product candidates; change or add additional manufacturers or suppliers and manufacture drug supply and drug product for clinical trials and commercialization; seek regulatory and marketing approvals for any of our product candidates that successfully complete clinical studies; seek to identify, and validate additional product candidates; acquire or in-license other product candidates and technologies; make milestone or other payments under our in-license or other agreements, including, without limitation, payments to 1st Order Pharmaceuticals, Inc and other third parties; maintain, protect and expand our intellectual property portfolio; establish a sales, marketing and distribution infrastructure to commercialize any products for which we may obtain marketing approval, create additional infrastructure and incur additional costs to support our operations and our product development and planned future commercialization efforts; and experience any delays or encounter issues with any of the above.

Our future capital requirements are difficult to forecast and will depend on many factors, including: